< U efr.  f?J.  3 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


A view  of  the  Panama  Canal.  The  steamship  Ancon  officially  opening  the  canal  to  traffic,  August  15,  1914. 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


BY 

R,  H.  WHITBECK 

PROFESSOR  OF  GEOGRAPHY  IN  THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  WISCONSIN 


NAn  gorfe 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
1923 


All  rights  reserved 


PRINTED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


Copyright,  1922, 

By  THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.  Published  August,  1922. 


NorfoooB  press 

J.  S.  Cushing  Co.  — Berwick  & Smith  Co. 
Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 


C .C  . 

97  <3 

Y9  i'7  9 H 


■) 


In  the  discussions  of  secondary  school  geography  for  a decade 
past,  two  ideas  have  constantly  been  emphasized : (1)  that  the 
geography  of  the  secondary  school  ought  to  be  humanized ; and 
(2)  that  the  influence  of  geographical  environment  upon  man’s 
mode  of  life  and  upon  his  principal  activities  should  be  always  in 
the  foreground.  With  these  ideas  the  author  is  in  sympathy,  and 
he  has  tried  to  provide  a brief  course  in  geography  in  essential  har- 
mony with  them. 

Until  a few  years  ago  the  geography  of  the  secondary  school 
was  either  physical  geography  or  commercial  geography ; but 
thus  to  separate  the  two  is  to  rob  each  of  its  complement.  If  the 
large  facts  of  economic  geography  are  not  traced  back  to  the 
physical  causes  upon  which,  in  a degree  at  least,  they  rest,  and  if 
the  facts  of  physical  geography  are  not  carried  forward  to  some  of 
the  great  human  consequences  which  arise  from  them,  then  each 
falls  short  of  its  possibilities.  Geography  is  not  simply  a study 
of  the  physical  environment  of  man,  nor  is  it  simply  a study  of 
selected  human  activities ; rather  is  it  a study  of  both  plus  their 
interrelation. 

Therefore,  all  of  the  chapters  devoted  to  the  physical  aspect  of 
geography  include,  or  are  followed  by,  a discussion  of  related  hu- 
man aspects.  For  example,  the  chapter  on  Materials  of  the  Earth’s 
Crust  is  followed  by  one  on  the  Mineral  Resources  and  Industries 
of  the  United  States.  The  chapter  on  Weathering  includes  a 
discussion  of  soil,  and  is  followed  by  another  on  the  Agricultural 
Industries  of  the  United  States,  The  chapter  on  the  physical 
features  of  rivers  is  followed  by  one  on  the  historical  and  economic 
aspects  of  American  rivers,  and  that  by  another  dealing  with  six 
great  rivers  in  other  lands  and  their  part  in  the  life  of  the  countries 
to  which  they  belong.  The  section  dealing  with  mountains  gives ^ 


v 


VI 


PREFACE 


generous  attention  to  Mountains  and  Man,  and  the  chapter  on 
climate  devotes  half  of  its  space  to  Climate  and  Man.  More 
space  is  devoted  to  coast  lines  and  harbors  than  to  the  ocean  proper. 
The  three  chapters  on  Transportation,  Forest  Industries,  and 
Manufactures  are  very  largely  applied  geography.  The  amount 
of  space  given  to  Volcanoes,  Earthquakes,  and  Glaciers  is  less 
than  is  usually  accorded  these  topics. 

Part  II  of  the  book  consists  of  four  chapters  devoted  to  Latin 
America,  the  British  Empire,  Continental  Europe,  and  China 
and  Japan.  It  is  not  the  purpose  of  these  chapters  to  giye__a  sys- 
tematie  account  of  the  geography  of  theselmir  regions, TSutrather 
to  select  and  emphasize  certain  factors  which  are  highly  significant 
in  giving  those  parts  of  the  world  the  distinctive  character  which 
they  have.  South  America  differs  widely  from  Europe  in  its 
human  geography  and  the  Far  East  differs  widely  from  both.  The 
aim  of  Part  II  is  to  direct  the  pupils’  minds  to  outstanding  features 
in  the  geography  of  these  regions  and  to  indicate  some  of  the  ways 
in  which  they  have  influenced  the  course  of  human  development 
there ; and  secondly  to  bring  into  prominence  the  way  in  which 
peoples  have  reacted  to  the  geographical  influences  to  which  they 
have  been  subjected. 

Another  aim  has  been  to  provide  exercises,  problems,  and  ques- 
tions which  call  for  comparison,  observation,  reasoning,  judging, 
and  generalizing;  in  short,  exercises  which  give  mental  training. 
Various  exercises  aim  to  give  the  pupils  experience  in  topical  reci- 
tations, in  the  use  of  reference  books,  and  in  making  excerpts,  ab- 
stracts, and  summaries  of  portions  of  the  text.  In  various  chap- 
ters throughout  the  book  questions  of  location  are  inserted.  The 
teacher  should  require  pupils  to  know  the  location  of  the  more 
important  places  about  which  they  are  studying;  and  wall  maps 
should  always  be  at  hand. 

The  author  is  indebted  to  many  people  and  to  various  depart- 
ments of  the  U.  S.  Government  for  assistance  in  obtaining  photo- 
graphs; liberal  use  has  been  made  of  maps  from  the  Geography 
of  the  World’s  Agriculture,  prepared  by  Messrs.  Finch  and  Baker 
and  published  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture.  Valuable 


PREFACE 


vii 

suggestions  and  criticisms  have  been  received  from  my  colleagues 
or  former  colleagues,  Professors  Lawrence  Martin,  V.  C.  Finch, 
F.  E.  Williams,  and  E.  F.  Bean,  Miss  Genivera  Loft,  and  Mr. 
Eric  Miller  of  the  U.  S.  Weather  Bureau  at  Madison. 

R.  H.  Whitbeck 

University  oe  Wisconsin,  Madison 
June  1,  1922 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


PART  ONE 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

I.  The  Earth  and  Its  Neighbors  ...  3 

II.  The  Materials  of  the  Earth’s  Crust  ....  22 

III.  Mineral  Resources  and  Industries  of  the  United  States  30 

IV.  Rock  Weathering  and  Soil 53 

V.  Agriculture  in  the  United  States 70 

VI.  The  Work  and  Service  of  Underground  Water  . . 91 

VII.  Rivers  at  Work 108 

VIII.  Historic  and  Economic  Aspects  of  American  Rivers  129 

IX.  Six  of  the  World’s  Great  Rivers 159 

X.  Glaciers  Present  and  Past 188 

XI.  Surface  Changes  Produced  from  Within  ....  213 

XII.  Surface  Features  of  the  Land;.  Their  Origin  and 

Influence 227 

XIII.  The  Atmosphere 253 

XIV.  Winds  and  Storms 268 

XV.  Cllmate  and  Its  Influence  .......  286 

XVI.  The  Ocean  and  Its  Shores 314 

XVII.  The  Coast  and  Coastal  Activities  of  the  United  States  337 
XVIII.  The  Forests  and  Forest  Industries  of  the  United  States  362 
XIX.  Geographical  Aspects  of  Transportation  ....  378 
XX.  Manufacturing  and  Manufacturing  Centers  in  the 

United  States  400 


IX 


X 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


PART  TWO 


CHAPTER 

XXI. 

Latin  America 

PAGE 

. 427 

XXII. 

The  British  Empire 

. 466 

XXIII. 

Continental  Europe 

. 501 

XXIV. 

Japan  and  China 

. 544 

Reference  Books  for  the  School  Library 

. 559 

Index  

. 563 

MAPS  IN 

COLORS 

FIGURES 

24  The  United  States 

between 

PAGES 

36-3? 

90a 

North  America 

it 

128-129 

298 

The  World  .... 

a 

426-427 

304 

Mexico,  Central  America,  and 

West  Indies  . 

face 

435 

308 

South  America 

between 

438-439 

329 

Dominion  of  Canada  . 

u 

476-477 

348 

Europe  

“ 

500-501 

373 

China  and  Japan  . 

face 

545 

PART  ONE 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


CHAPTER  I 

THE  EARTH  AND  ITS  NEIGHBORS 

The  Earth 

The  Three  Parts  of  the  Earth.  — The  earth  is  made  up  of  (a)  the 
land,  ( b ) the  air,  and  (c)  the  water.  The  solid  portion  is  composed 
chiefly  of  rock  and  is  therefore  known  as  the  lithosphere , meaning 
rock-sphere.  The  liquid  portion,  chiefly  contained  in  the  oceans, 
is  known  as  the  hydrosphere , meaning  water-sphere.  The  gaseous 
portion,  or  atmosphere,  envelops  the  other  two. 

The  interior  of  the  earth  is  composed  of  material  that  is  heav- 
ier than  the  outer  shell  of  the  lithosphere ; again,  this  outer  shell 
is  composed  of  material  that  is  heavier  than  the  water  or  hydro- 
sphere ; and  the  hydrosphere  is  heavier  than  the  atmosphere. 
Thus,  it  is  evident  that  the  materials  composing  the  earth  as  a 
whole  are  increasingly  lighter  from  the  interior  outward. 

The  Atmosphere 

The  air  is  a real  substance  and  is  as  much  a part  of  the  earth 
as  is  the  water  or  the  land.  As  the  earth  turns  upon  its  axis,  the 
atmosphere  turns  with  it ; and,  in  the  yearly  journeys  of  the  earth 
around  the  sun,  the  air,  water,  and  land  travel  together.  By  the 
attraction  of  gravity,  air,  water,  and  all  loose  objects  are  bound 
to  the  earth  in  spite  of  its  rapid  movements  of  rotation  and  revo- 
lution. 


3 


4 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Essential  to  Life.  — The  air  not  only  covers  the  land  and  the 
water,  but  it  also  penetrates  each  of  these.  There  is  air  in  the  soil 
and  in  the  pores  of  the  rocks,  and  were  it  not  for  the  air  in  water, 
fish  could  not  live  there.  Indeed,  nothing  that  lives  on  the  earth, 
either  plant  or  animal,  can  do  without  air. 

Depth,  Weight,  Density.  — While  air  enters  both  the  lithosphere 
and  the  hydrosphere,  by  far  the  greater  part  of  it  encircles  the  rest 

of  the  earth  like  a gaseous 
mantle.  Its  actual  depth  or 
thickness  is  not  known,  but 
it  extends  at  least  300  or  400 
miles  above  the  land. 

A thickness  of  several  hun- 
dred miles  of  air  seems  a great 
amount ; but  compared  with 
the  earth  as  a whole  it  really 
is  not  great  (Fig.  1).  Even 
if  the  atmosphere  were  500 
miles  deep,  it  would  then 
form  a layer  only  about  as 
thick  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  earth  as  the  peel  of  a lemon 
is  to  the  size  of  the  lemon. 

Although  made  up  of  light,  invisible  gases,  the  air  is  a substance 
and  therefore  has  weight.  At  sea  level  the  weight  is  equal  to  about 
15  pounds  on  every  square  inch  of  surface.  That  part  of  the  at- 
mosphere which  is  near  the  bottom  supports  the  weight  of  all  the 
air  above  ; and,  since  gases  are  easily  compressed,  the  gases  in  these 
lower  layers  are  pressed  more  closely  together ; that  is,  the  air  is 
made  more  dense.  But,  in  going  upward  in  the  atmosphere,  there 
is  less  and  less  pressure  and  the  air  becomes  less  and  less  dense. 
The  air  particles  are  farther  apart  and  there  is  really  much  less  air ; 
such  air  is  said  to  be  rarefied.  If  you  ascend  3.6  miles  above  sea 
level,  one-half  of  the  atmosphere,  by  weight,  lies  below  you  and  one- 
half  above  ; but  the  layer  of  air  above  is  at  least  a hundred  times  as 
thick  as  that  below,  becoming  more  and  more  rarefied  as  the  dis- 
tance from  the  earth  increases.  Because  there  is  so  little  air  at 


Fig.  1.  • — In  the  above  diagram,  represent- 
ing one-half  of  the  earth,  the  black  semi- 
circle represents  the  “crust”  of  the  earth 
as  50  miles  in  thickness,  while  the  shaded 
band  represents  the  proportional  depth  of 
the  atmosphere  if  it  were  250  miles  in 
thickness. 


THE  EARTH  AND  ITS  NEIGHBORS 


5 


these  higher  levels,  men  find  it  very  difficult  to  climb  to  the  tops  of 
high  mountains,  and  partly  for  this  reason  some  of  the  highest 
mountains  have  never  yet  been  climbed. 


The  Hydrosphere 

The  Ocean  Waters.  — Water,  being  a fluid,  readily  flows  into 
the  lower  depressions  in  the  earth’s  surface,  the  largest  of  which 


Fig.  2.  — Map  indicating  depths  of  the  ocean.  The  white  borders  around  the  con- 
tinents are  the  continental  shelves.  ( After  Murray .) 


are  the  ocean  basins.  There  is  more  than  enough  water  on  the 
earth’s  surface  to  fill  the  ocean  basins  so  that  the  oceans  overlap 
the  margins  of  the  continents  somewhat  (Fig.  2).  The  Atlantic 
overlaps  the  eastern  part  of  North  America  a hundred  miles  or 
more.  Although  the  ocean  basins  are  in  some  places  about  six 
miles  in  depth,  they  are  shallow  in  proportion  to  their  width; 
relatively,  the  ocean  waters  form  only  a mere  film  on  the  surface 
of  the  earth  ; the  skin  of  an  apple  is  much  thicker  in  proportion. 

The  Three  States  of  Water.  — Water  exists  in  three  states  — 
solid,  liquid,  and  gaseous  — and  it  readily  changes  from  one  state 


5 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


to  another.  If  heated  above  the  boiling  point  (212°  Fahrenheit1), 
it  passes  into  steam,  a gaseous  form  of  matter.  If  cooled  below  the 
freezing  point  (32°  Fahrenheit),  it  changes  to  a solid  — ice.  At 
temperatures  between  these  two  extremes  the  natural  condition  of 
water  is  liquid;  and,  since  the  temperatures  of  the  inhabited  parts 
of  the  earth  are  usually  between  32°  and  212°  Fahrenheit,  water  is 
most  commonly  seen  in  the  liquid  state. 

Water  Vapor  and  Rainfall.  — While  it  is  true  in  general  that 
the  state  of  water  depends  on  the  temperature,  the  presence  of 
water  vapor  in  the  air  at  all  times,  even  when  the  temperature  is 
below  the  freezing  point,  is  proof  that  there  is  an  exception  to  this. 
Water  vapor  is  at  all  times  escaping  from  the  surface  of  water 
bodies,  and  even  from  ice,  by  a process  which  is  called  evaporation. 
When  this  vapor  condenses  back  to  the  liquid  or  solid  state,  it  falls 
as  rain  or  snow.  Some  of  it  sinks  into  the  soil  and  seeps  far  down 
intq  the  rocks.  Plants  could  not  live  if  there  were  not  water  in  the 
soil,  and  neither  man  nor  lower  animals  could  live  without  plants. 
Since  the  lands  could  not  be  watered  by  rain  if  the  water  vapor 
were  not  distributed  by  the  air,  we  see  here  a second  vital  service 
performed  by  the  atmosphere. 

The  Lithosphebe 

The  Mantle  Rock.  — In  nearly  all  places  the  land  surface  has  a 
covering  of  loose  earth,  varying  from  a few  inches  to  many  feet  in 
thickness,  beneath  which  there  is  solid  rock  or  bed,  rock.  The  layer 
of  loose  earth,  sometimes  called  mantle  rock,  is  almost  wholly  made 
of  fragments  and  grains  of  rock.  If  this  material  were  evenly 
distributed  over  the  surface  of  the  land,  it  would  make  a layer  of 
no  great  thickness ; probably  less  than  fifty  feet  on  a sphere  the 
size  of  the  earth  ; this  is  proportionally  no  more  than  a film  of  dust 
would  be  on  a schoolroom  globe. 

The  Earth’s  Interior.  — The  deepest  mines  and  wells  have 
penetrated  only  a little  more  than  a mile  below  the  surface, 

1 The  Fahrenheit  thermometer  is  the  one  most  commonly  used  in  America. 
In  scientific  measurements  the  Centigrade  thermometer  is  usually  employed ; it 
places  the  freezing  point  of  water  at  0°  and  the  boiling  point  at  100°. 


THE  EARTH  AND  ITS  NEIGHBORS 


7 


so  that  it  is  only  the  loose  mantle  rock  and  the  upper  layers  of 
the  bed  rock  with  which  men  are  acquainted.  Therefore,  very 
little  is  known  about  the  remaining  portion  of  the  lithosphere. 
One  fact,  however,  is  important : the  farther  wells  and  mines 
penetrate  into  the  earth,  the  warmer  the  rock  is  found  to  be.  A 
well  in  Pennsylvania,  7000  feet  deep,  showed  a temperature  of 
150°  Fahrenheit.  While  the  rate  of  increase  in  temperature 


Fig.  3.  — View  of  a portion  of  a relief  model  of  the  earth,  showing  continents,  ocean 
basins,  and  islands.  The  elevations  are  much  exaggerated  in  height.  (Photo- 
graphed from  Jones'  Model  of  the  Earth.  Used  by  permission  of  Thos.  Jones, 
author,  and  Rand  McNally  and  Co.,  publishers.  Patent  and  copyright  by  Thos. 
Jones.) 

varies  greatly,  it  averages  about  one  degree  for  each  fifty  or 
sixty  feet  of  descent,  after  a few  yards  of  the  surface  layers  have 
been  passed  through.  If  this  rate  of  increase  in  temperature 
continues  to  a depth  of  fifty  miles,  the  rock  would  be  hot  enough 
to  melt  if  the  pressure  there  were  the  same  as  it  is  at  the  surface. 
At  such  a great  depth,  the  pressure  — produced  by  the  weight 
of  the  rock  above  — is  so  enormous  that,  even  though  very  hot, 
the  rock  cannot  expand  sufficiently  to  melt.  It  is  established 


8 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


that  notwithstanding  the  great  heat  in  the  interior  of  the  earth 
our  planet  is  as  rigid  as  a solid  globe  of  steel.  There  are,  how- 
ever, portions  of  the  earth’s  interior  where  the  rocks  are  actually 
melted,  as  is  proved  by  the  lava  poured  out  by  volcanoes. 

Surface  of  the  Lithosphere.  — The  surface  of  the  lithosphere 
seems  to  us  to  be  very  rough.  The  highest  mountains  rise  be- 
tween five  and  six  miles  above  sea  level,  and  the  deepest 
parts  of  the  ocean  basins  are  somewhat  over  six  miles  below 
sea  level,  making  a total  difference  of  about  twelve  miles.  Large 
as  this  amount  seems,  it  is  very  small  in  comparison  with  the 
thickness  of  the  lithosphere  as  a whole ; indeed  the  earth’s  sur- 
face is  no  rougher  in  proportion  to  the  whole  sphere  than  the 
skin  of  a smooth  orange  is  to  the  orange. 

Cause  of  the  Larger  Surface  Features.  — The  largest  of  the 
surface  features  — the  ocean  basins  and  the  continents  with  their 
mountains  and  plateaus  — have  been  formed  by  changes  in  the 
level  of  the  earth’s  crust.  As  a result,  some  parts  have  been 
raised  while  others  have  been  lowered.  The  cause  for  these 
changes  is  not  certainly  known,  but  it  is  evident  that  the  earth 
has  contracted  or  shrunk  to  smaller  size,  as  rock,  iron,  and  other 
substances  do  when  they  cool.  This  has  caused  a wrinkling  of 
the  outer  crust  as  it  fits  itself  to  the  shrinking  interior  (Fig.  3). 
In  this  way  parts  of  the  crust  have  been  raised  in  great  wrin- 
kles to  form  mountain  ranges,  while  in  other  places  extensive 
areas  of  the  crust  have  settled,  producing  the  ocean  basins.  Still 
other  large  areas  have  either  been  pushed  upward  or  else  did 
not  sink  so  far  as  did  the  ocean  basins,  and  these  areas  therefore 
stand  up  as  continents  or  as  large  islands. 

Thus,  the  contracting  of  the  earth,  whether  due  to  cooling 
or  to  some  other  cause,  explains  the  larger  irregularities  of  the 
surface ; but  most  of  the  lesser  irregularities  have  been  caused 
by  the  action  of  the  weather  and  by  running  water.  These  pro- 
cesses, called  weathering  and  erosion,  will  be  discussed  later. 

Gravity.  — When  Isaac  Newton  saw  an  apple  fall  from  a 
tree,  he  wondered  why  it  fell  toward  the  earth,  and  he  asked  him- 
self, “Why  did  it  not  fall  upward?”  As  the  result  of  his  years 


THE  EARTH  AND  ITS  NEIGHBORS 


9 


of  study,  and  of  the  investigations  of  other  men,  the  working  of 
the  law  of  gravitation  is  now  well  understood.  It  is  known  that 
every  particle  of  matter  exerts  an  attraction  upon  every  other 
particle.  The  earth  attracts  the  moon  and  the  moon  the  earth ; 
but  the  earth,  being  the  larger,  has  the  stronger  attraction. 
It  is  this  same  attraction  of  gravitation,  exerted  by  the  sun, 
that  keeps  the  planets  revolving  around  it  in  their  orbits.  The 
attraction  of  gravitation  is  not  confined  to  the  sun,  or  to  the 
planets,  but  exists  in  all  matter,  whether  solid,  liquid,  or  gaseous. 
Every  object  about 
you,  even  gaseous  par- 
ticles of  the  air,  exerts 
an  attraction  upon 
other  objects ; but  the 
relatively  great  size  of 
the  earth  makes  it  the 
chief  attraction  for  all 
objects  on  or  near  it. 

The  earth’s  attraction 
upon  near-by  objects 
is  sometimes  distin- 
guished by  the  term 
gravity;  but  it  is  ex- 
actly the  same  force 
as  gravitation. 

Practical  Impor- 
tance of  Gravity.  — Gravity  binds  the  air,  the  water,  the 
people,  and  other  objects  to  the  earth  and  keeps  them  from 
flying  off  into  space  as  the  earth  spins  rapidly  on  its  axis. 
Because  of  gravity,  objects  have  weight,  water  flows  down- 
hill, glaciers  move  down  mountain  valleys,  avalanches 
plunge  down  the  mountains,  soil  and  rocks  creep  down  hill 
slopes,  rain  falls  to  the  earth,  dust  settles,  and  many 
other  phenomena  occur.  Gravity  never  relaxes  its  pull.  Be- 
cause of  its  persistent  operation,  walls  of  high  buildings  must 
be  vertical  (plumb),  or  they  topple  over.  It  so  pulls  upon  the 


10 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


materials  in  a bridge  that  great  engineering  skill  is  necessary 
to  make  a long  bridge  safe  from  the  danger  of  falling  under  its 
own  weight.  This  force  makes  it  difficult  and  expensive  for 
locomotives  to  haul  trains  up  grades ; therefore  railway  builders 
often  follow  circuitous  routes  in  order  to  secure  easy  grades. 
The  climbing  of  many  flights  of  stairs  tires  us  because  we  must 
use  our  muscles  to  overcome  the  downward  pull  of  gravity.  In- 
deed, in  every  act  of  life  which  requires  the  moving  of  objects 
or  of  ourselves,  we  must  work  against  this  ceaseless  pull  of 
gravity.  Yet,  if  it  should  stop  for  one  moment,  we  should  be 
hurled  off  into  space  and  the  earth  itself  would  fly  into  frag- 
ments. 

The  Earth’s  Magnetism. — There  is  another  force  of  attraction 
in  the  earth  called  magnetism.  If  a needle  or  any  small  bar  of 
steel  is  magnetized  and  then  poised  so  that  it  may  swing  freely, 
it  will  come  to  rest  pointing  in  a generally  north-south  direction, 
though  not  usually  exactly  north  and  south.  Such  an  instru- 
ment is  a simple  form  of  compass.  A magnetic  needle  bal- 
anced at  the  middle,  so  that  either  end  may  freely  rise  or  fall, 
is  called  a dipping  needle,  or  dip  compass.  If  a dip  compass 
were  carried  northward  from  Detroit,  for  example,  one  end 
of  the  needle  (the  positive  end)  would  dip  downward  more  and 
more  until,  at  a certain  point  in  northern  North  America,  it 
would  stand  in  a vertical  position.  This  place,  called  the 
earth’s  north  magnetic  pole,  is  about  twenty  degrees  from  the 
north  (geographical)  pole.  The  earth’s  south  magnetic  pole  is 
almost  as  far  from  the  south  (geographical)  pole. 

The  Earth  a Great  Magnet.  — Thus  the  earth  is  a great  mag- 
net, and  it  is  the  earth’s  magnetism  that  makes  the  compass 
so  useful,  especially  to  mariners  and  surveyors.  The  compass 
needle  does  not  point  due  north  and  south  in  all  places,  but  mar- 
iners, and  others  who  make  use  of  it,  have  charts  and  tables  by 
means  of  which  they  can  readily  determine  the  true  north  from 
the  compass  readings.  The  discovery  of  the  earth’s  magnetism 
and  the  compass  must  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  great  steps  in 
human  progress.  (Why?) 


THE  EARTH  AND  ITS  NEIGHBORS 


11 


Longitude  and  Time.  — The  earth’s  circumference  comprises 
360°,  and  the  earth  turns  upon  its  axis  once  in  24  hours.  Thus, 
all  places  on  the  earth  turn  through  360°,  or  one  complete 
circle,  in  24  hours.  Dividing  360°  by  24  gives  15°;  the  earth 
turns  through  15°  of  longitude  in  one  hour  of  time.  If  the  sun 
rises  at  6 a.m.  at  New  York,  it  will  rise  one  hour  afterward  at 
a place  15°  west  of  New  York ; two  hours  afterward  at  a place 
30°  west,  and  so  on.  If  the  clocks  in  each  place  were  set  to  keep 
actual  time  (sun  time),  we  should  find  a different  time  in  each 


successive  place  as  we  travel  east  or  west,  and  would  find  it  nec- 
essary to  change  our  watches  constantly ; railroads  could  not 
have  time-tables,  and  much  confusion  would  result. 

Standard  Time.  — To  overcome  this  difficulty,  Standard 
Time  Belts  have  been  adopted.  These  belts  are  about  15°  wide, 
and  within  each  belt  all  places  have  the  same  or  standard  time. 
The  clocks  in  Milwaukee,  Indianapolis,  Chicago,  and  St.  Louis 
all  being  in  the  central  time  belt  indicate  noon  at  the  same  time. 
They  keep  standard  time.  Clocks  in  the  central  time  belt  (Fig.  5) 
are  one  hour  earlier  than  those  in  the  eastern  time  belt,  and  one 


12 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


hour  later  than  those  in  the  mountain  time  belt,  and  two  hours 
later  than  those  in  the  Pacific  time  belt.  The  places  at  which 
standard  time  changes  in  the  United  States  are  shown  in  Fig.  5. 


NORTHERN  SUMMER  NORTHERN  WINTER 


NORTHERN  SPRING  NORTHERN  AUTUMN 


MARCH  21st  SEPTEMBER  22nd 


Fig.  6.  — The  earth  in  four  positions  with  respect  to  the  sun’s  rays.  The  shaded 
part  of  each  circle  represents  the  night,  or  dark,  hemisphere,  and  the  unshaded 
part  the  day,  or  light,  hemisphere.  Note  where  the  perpendicular  ray  strikes  the 
earth  in  each  case ; also  the  extreme  northern  and  extreme  southern  rays.  Locate 
the  five  zones  ; — N.  Frigid,  N.  Temperate,  Torrid,  S.  Temperate,  and  S.  Frigid. 


Note  on  Fig.  6.  The  above  drawings  are  diagrams,  not  views  of  the  earth..  They 
show  diagrammatically  where  certain  rays  from  the  sun  strike  the  earth  on  the 
four  dates  given.  It  is  to  be  remembered  that  the  axis  of  the  earth  is  always 
inclined  23-j°.  In  the  lower  diagram  the  axis  does  not  appear  to  be  inclined ; - it  is 
to  be  thought  of,  however,  as  being  so  inclined  that  one  pole  is  tipped  directly 
toward  the  observer  and  the  other  directly  away. 


THE  EARTH  AND  ITS  NEIGHBORS 


13 


Brief  Review  of  the  Earth’s  Motions.  — Recall  from  your 
earlier  study  of  geography,  the  following  facts : 

1.  The  axis  of  the  earth  is  the  imaginary  line  upon  which  it  rotates. 

2.  The  north  and  south  poles  are  respectively  the  north  and  south  ex- 
tremities of  this  axis. 

3.  Alternate  day  and  night  are  produced  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on 
its  axis.  Explain  why.  Why  does  the  sun  appear  to  rise  and  set?  Why 
does  it  appear  to  rise  in  the  east? 

4.  The  earth  revolves  about  the  sun  in  an  elliptical  orbit.  How  long  does 
it  take  for  one  revolution?  What  is  an  ellipse  (Fig.  204)  ? 

5.  The  earth’s  axis  is  inclined  23 1°  toward  the  plane  of  its  orbit.  Explain 
what  this  means  (Fig.  6). 

6.  The  axis  is  at  all  times  inclined  the  same  amount  and  in  the  same  direc- 
tion, the  north  end  pointing  toward  the  pole  star. 

7.  Two  conditions — revolution  in  its  orbit  and  continuous  inclination 
of  the  axis  in  the  same  direction  — give  rise  to  our  change  of  seasons. 

8.  There  are  jive  zones;  the  width  of  these  is  determined  by  the  amount 
of  inclination  of  the  earth’s  axis.  Name  the  zones;  tell  the  width  of  each 
in  degrees,  and  show  how  the  inclination  of  the  axis  fixes  the  width  of  the 
zones.  By  what  circles  is  each  of  the  zones  bounded  (Fig.  6)  ? 

9.  Latitude  is  the  distance,  measured  in  degrees,  north  or  south  of  the 
equator. 

10.  Longitude  is  the  distance,  measured  in  degrees,  east  or  west  of  the 
prime  meridian.  Through  what  place  does  the  meridian  run  from  which 
most  nations  reckon  longitude? 

11.  Meridians  extend  from  pole  to  pole  and  are  used  to  indicate  longitude; 
parallels  of  latitude  extend  around  the  earth  parallel  to  the  equator,  and  are 
used  to  indicate  latitude.  Are  meridians  also  parallel?  Explain. 

EXERCISE  I 

1.  On  a globe  (or  a map)  locate  the  equator;  the  prime  meridian;  the 
north  pole ; the  south  pole. 

2.  What  is  the  latitude  of  the  equator?  of  the  north  pole?  of  the 
south  pole? 

3.  What  circle  passes  through  places  that  have  0°  latitude? 

4.  What  point  has  neither  latitude  nor  longitude  ? Is  there  more  than  one 
such  point? 

5.  What  is  the  highest  latitude  that  any  place  can  have  ? Has  any  man 
ever  reached  this  latitude  in  the  northern  hemisphere?  in  the  southern? 

6.  What  is  the  greatest  longitude  that  any  place  can  have? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  east  longitude?  by  west  longitude?  Name  the 
grand  divisions  of  the  eastern  hemisphere ; of  the  western  hemisphere. 

8.  How  many  degrees  are  there  in  a large  circle?  in  a small  circle? 

9.  Through  what  grand  divisions  does  the  equator  pass?  the  Arctic 
circle?  the  tropic  of  Cancer?  the  tropic  of  Capricorn?  Trace  the  Ant- 
arctic circle. 


14 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


10.  Which  of  the  zones  includes  the  most  land  ? 

11.  Which  hemisphere  — the  northern  or  the  southern  — has  the  ereater 
amount  of  land? 


The  Solar  System 

Members  of  the  Sun’s  Family.  — Large  as  the  earth  seems 
to  us,  it  is  only  a mere  speck  in  space.  Indeed,  it  is  a very  small 


part  even  of  the  solar  system,  and  the  whole  solar  system  is  only 
a very  small  part  of  the  universe  (Figs.  7,  8,  9). 

The  solar  system  (Fig.  8)  includes:  (1)  the  sun,  which  is  the 
center  of  the  system ; (2)  eight  ; planets  and  their  moons  (twenty- 
five  moons  are  known  and  others  may  yet  be  discovered) ; 
(3)  some  800  tiny  planets,  called  asteroids;  (4)  a few  comets 
(most  comets  are  not  a part  of  the  solar  system). 

Size  of  the  Sun.  — The  sun  is  one  of  the  stars,  and  is  of  such 
vast  size  that  if  it  were  a hollow  sphere  a million  earths  would 
be  required  to  fill  it.  Or,  if  the  earth  and  moon  were  within 
this  hollow  sphere,  with  the  earth  at  the  center,  the  moon  could 
revolve  in  its  natural  orbit  around  the  earth  and  have  much 


THE  EARTH  AND  ITS  NEIGHBORS 


15 


room  to  spare  (Fig.  9).  So  huge  is  the  sun  that  its  mass  is  1200 
times  that  of  all  the  rest  of  the  solar  system. 

The  Sun’s  Heat.  — The  sun  is  intensely  hot  (Fig.  10).  In 
fact,  it  is  far  hotter  than  anything  with  which  we  are  familiar; 
heat  waves  radiate  from  it  in  all  directions.  An  exceedingly 
minute  fraction  of  this  heat  (g  000  q 0-0-  o5-q)  comes  to  the  earth  ; 
yet  a very  small  part  of  this  minute  fraction  makes  a summer 


Fig.  8.  — The  black  circles  represent  the  planets  of  the  solar  system  in  propor- 
tional sizes.  The  open  circles  show  the  relative  sizes  of  the  orbits  of  the  va- 
rious planets,  and  the  numbers  give  the  lengths  of  the  respective  “years”  of 
these  planets,  or  the  time  it  requires  each  to  revolve  around  the  sun. 


day  seem  almost  unbearably  hot  to  us.  Without  the  sun’s  heat, 
the  earth  would  not  be  habitable. 

The  Sun’s  Distance.  — The  sun  is  the  center  of  the  solar  sys- 
tem around  which  revolve  the  planets,  held  in  their  orbits  by 
its  powerful  attraction.  These  orbits  are  not  quite  circular, 
but  have  a somewhat  oval  form,  called  an  ellipse;  the  sun  is 


16 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


not  at  the  center  but  a little  to  one  side  (at  one  of  the  foci ) 
(Fig.  204).  For  this  reason  the  distance  from  the  earth  to  the 
sun  is  not  always  the  same,  but  changes  throughout  the  year. 
The  average  distance  of  the  earth  from  the  sun  is  about  93,000,000 
miles. 

Two  of  the  planets,  Mercury  and  Venus,  are  nearer  than  the  earth  to 
the  sun ; while  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus,  and  Neptune  are  farther  away 
than  the  earth.  So  great  is  the  distance  of  Neptune,  that  if  at  the  birth  of 
Christ  a messenger  had  set  out  to  travel  from  the  sun  to  Neptune  and  had 
traveled  at  the  rate  of  60  miles  an  hour,  day  and  night,  he  would  not  yet  be 
halfway  there.  But  even  this  great  distance  is  small  compared  with  the  dis- 
tance that  separates  us  from  the  stars,  the  nearest  of  which  (omitting  the 
sun)  is  10,000  times  as  far  away  as  the  distance  from  the  sun  to  Neptune. 


Stars  and  Planets.  — Stars  are  suns  and  shine  by  their  own 
light.  About  five  thousand  may  be  seen  with  the  naked  eye  on 

a clear  winter’s  night,  but 
millions  more  are  known  to 
the  astronomers.  How  many 
million  stars  exist  but  are 
invisible,  no  one  would  even 
venture  to  guess.  The  planets 
of  the  solar  system  are  smaller 
than  the  known  stars ; they 
revolve  about  the  sun,  and 
they  shine  only  by  reflecting 
the  sun’s  light.  All  the  planets 
except  Mercury  and  Venus 
have  one  or  more  moons  which 
revolve  about  them  ; the  earth 
has  only  one,  while  Jupiter  has 
six  and  Saturn  ten.  The 
planets  differ  greatly  in  size ; 
Jupiter,  the  largest,  being  equal 
to  1200  earths,  while  Mercury,  the  smallest,  is  much  smaller 
than  the  earth.  Besides  being  the  smallest  of  the  planets,  Mer- 
cury is  the  nearest  to  the  sun  (Fig.  8). 


Fig.  9.  — The  sun  is  so  large  that,  if  it 
were  a hollow  sphere  with  the  earth  at 
the  center,  the  moon  could  revolve  in  its 
orbit  around  the  earth  entirely  within 
the  sun. 


THE  EARTH  AND  ITS  NEIGHBORS 


17 


The  Moon.  — Our  moon  is  smaller  than  any  of  the  eight  plan- 
ets, although  it  looks  to  us  about  as  large  as  the  sun.  As  a mat- 
ter of  fact,  the  sun  is 
many  thousand  times 
larger  than  the  moon, 
which  looks  large 
merely  because  it  is 
near  us  (about  240,000 
miles  away,  while  the 
sun  is  400  times  as 
distant).  This  small, 
cold  body,  having  no 
air,  water,  or  life, 
shines,  like  the  planets, 
by  reflecting  the  sun’s 
light. 

Other  Members  of 
the  Solar  System.  — 

Between  the  orbit  of 
Mars  and  that  of 
Jupiter  is  a group  of 
about  800  little  planets,  called  asteroids,  which  revolve  about 
the  sun,  each  in  its  own  path.  The  largest  is  only  about  500 
miles  in  diameter. 

Comets  are  peculiar,  gaseous  bodies,  a few  of  which  belong 
to  the  solar  system;  others  occasionally  enter  it.  They  travel 
in  very  much  flattened  orbits ; some  of  them,  like  Halley’s  comet, 
come  back  at  regular  intervals,  while  others  are  seen  once  and 
never  return. 

Habitability  of  the  Planets.  — Men  cannot  help  wondering 
if  there  are  people  on  the  other  planets.  It  is  generally  be- 
lieved that  human  beings,  at  all  like  ourselves,  could  not  live 
on  Mercury  or  Venus,  which  are  so  close  to  the  sun  that  the  tem- 
perature must  be  exceedingly  hot.  Nor  is  it  thought  probable 
that  the  more  distant  planets,  such  as  Saturn,  Uranus,  and  Nep- 
tune, could  support  human  life,  since  they  are  so  far  away  from 


18 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


the  sun  that  they  receive  much  less  heat  from  it.  Neither  does 
Jupiter  seem  habitable,  for  it  appears  to  have  an  atmosphere 
densely  laden  with  moisture,  and  some  astronomers  believe 


that  it  is  still  so  hot  that  li 


Fig.  11. — A meteorite.  These  bodies, 
composed  almost  wholly  of  iron,  and  in 
some  cases  weighing  many  tons,  occa- 
sionally fall  from  outer  space  to  the  earth. 

volve  about  the  far  distant  stars 
to  solve  this  mystery. 


could  not  exist  upon  it.  That  the 
moon  is  not  inhabited  is 
certain,  since  it  has  neither 
air  nor  water. 

Of  all  the  planets,  Mars 
is  the  one  that  appears  to 
be  most  like  the  earth,  and 
astronomers  have  found  evi- 
dence which,  in  the  opinion 
of  some,  suggests  that  it  is 
inhabited  by  intelligent  be- 
ings ; but  to  this  most  astron- 
omers have  not  agreed.  It 
would  be  interesting  to  know 
if  there  are  people  on  other 
planets  in  the  solar  system, 
or  on  planets  that  may  re- 
but man  has  not  been  able 


Summary 

The  earth  is  composed  of  the  land,  or  lithosphere;  the  air, 
or  atmosphere  ; and  the  water,  or  hydrosphere.  The  atmosphere 
is  believed  to  be  a few  hundred  miles  in  thickness,  but  half  of  it 
lies  between  sea  level  and  3.6  miles  above.  It  has  weight  and 
exerts  a pressure  of  about  15  pounds  to  the  square  inch  at  sea 
level.  We  live  at  the  bottom  of  an  ocean  of  air.  All  forms  of 
life  are  so  made  that  they  cannot  exist  without  air. 

The  oceans  make  up  most  of  the  hydrosphere ; they  more  than 
fill  the  ocean  basins  and  overlap  somewhat  the  margins  of  the 
continents.  The  oceans  supply  the  larger  part  of  the  moisture 
which  the  winds  carry  over  the  land  and  distribute  in  the  form 


THE  EARTH  AND  ITS  NEIGHBORS 


19 


of  rain  and  snow.  Without  this  rain  the  continents  would  be 
deserts. 

The  lithosphere  is  composed  of  bed  rock  and  of  disintegrated 
rock,  or  rock  waste;  the  latter  forms  a thin  and  uneven  cover- 
ing over  the  surface 
of  the  land  and  is 
often  called  the 
mantle  rock.  The 
deepest  wells  and 
mines  are  a little 
more  than  a mile 
deep,  but  they  in- 
dicate that  the  tem- 
perature increases 
on  an  average  1° 

Fahrenheit  for  each 
50  or  60  feet  of 
descent.  The  inte- 
rior of  the  earth  is 
very  hot  but  not 
molten.  The  earth’s 
surface  is  less  rough 
in  proportion  to  its 
size  than  the  surface  of  an  orange.  The  shrinking  or  contract- 
ing of  the  interior  of  the  earth  forces  the  surface  rocks  upward 
in  some  places  and  downward  in  others,  thus  producing  conti- 
nents, ocean  basins/mountains,  plateaus,  etc. 

Every  particle  or  body  attracts  every  other  ; the  earth’s  attrac- 
tion is  called  gravity.  This  attraction  binds  the  air,  water,  people, 
and  other  objects  to  the  lithosphere  and  gives  them  weight ; it 
makes  movement  “downhill”  easy  and  “uphill”  difficult.  The 
earth  acts  like  a great  magnet  with  north  and  south  magnetic 
poles. 

The  solar  system  (a  very  small  part  of  the  universe)  consists 
of  1 star  (the  sun),  8 planets,  about  25  moons  or  satellites,  800 
or  more  tiny  planets  called  asteroids,  and  a few  comets ; but 


20 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


the  sun  has  1200  times  as  much  matter  as  all  the  rest  of  the  solar 
system.  The  earth  receives  only  a minute  fraction  of  the  total 
heat  emitted  from  the  sun,  which  is  about  93,000,000  miles 
away.  The  stars  are  suns,  shining  by  their  own  light ; planets 
and  moons  shine  by  reflecting  light  received  from  the  sun.  Our 
moon  is  only  as  far  from  us  as  is  the  sun ; it  is  a relatively 
small  body  without  air,  water,  or  life. 

EXERCISE  II 

1.  Make  a list  of  the  following  terms  whose  meaning  you  clearly  under- 
stand and  can  explain. 

2.  Make  a second  list  of  the  terms  whose  meaning  is  not  clear  to  you 
from  the  textbook  and  dictionary  learn  the  meaning  of  these  terms : 


lithosphere 

magnetism 

hydrosphere 

compass 

atmosphere 

dip-needle 

density 

vertical 

rarefied 

north  and  south  poles 

fluid 

axis 

gas 

rotation 

solid 

ellipse 

vapor 

inclination  (of  axis) 

temperature 

latitude 

Fahrenheit 

parallel  of  latitude 

evaporation 

meridian 

condensation 

prime  meridian 

bed  rock 

longitude 

mantle  rock 

equator 

surface 

sphere 

gravity 

hemisphere 

northern  hemisphere 

planet 

east  and  west  longitude 

star 

north  and  south  latitude 

orbit 

Arctic  circle 

reflected  light 

Antarctic  circle 

asteroid 

tropic  of  Cancer 

comet 

tropic  of  Capricorn 

astronomer 

solar  system 

habitable 

EXERCISE  III 

1.  Why  do  the  ocean  waters  occupy  the  lowest  depressions  in  the  litho- 
sphere? 

2.  Why  is  the  atmosphere  the  outermost  part  of  the  earth? 

3.  WTiy  is  the  atmosphere  to  be  regarded  as  a part  of  the  earth? 


THE  EARTH  AND  ITS  NEIGHBORS 


21 


4.  Why  does  the  rapid  whirling  of  the  earth  not  hurl  loose  bodies  off 
into  space? 

5.  Why  is  the  lower  air  more  dense  than  the  upper  air? 

6.  Why  do  men  find  it  difficult  to  exert  themselves  on  high  mountains  ? 

7.  Why  is  water  sometimes  a gas,  sometimes  a liquid,  and  sometimes 
a solid? 

8.  Why  does  the  rock  at  great  depths  in  the  earth  not  melt,  since  the 
temperature  is  high  enough  to  melt  it? 

9.  Why  is  the  surface  of  the  earth  rough? 

10.  Why  are  people  on  the  other  side  of  the  earth  not  walking  with  their 
heads  down? 

11.  Why  is  it  easier  to  go  downhill  than  up? 

12.  Wiry  must  the  walls  of  tall  buildings  be  perfectly  “plumb”? 

13.  Why  may  a compass  be  used  to  indicate  directions? 

14.  Why  do  we  have  day  and  night? 

15.  Why  do  we  have  change  of  seasons? 

16.  Why  does  the  earth  receive  only  a minute  fraction  of  the  heat  given 
out  by  the  sun  ? 

17.  Why  does  the  moon  shine?  the  sun? 

18.  Why  does  the  moon  appear  to  be  about  as  large  as  the  sun  when  in 
reality  it  is  much  smaller  ? 


CHAPTER  II 


THE  MATERIALS  OF  THE  EARTH’S  CRUST 

Man’s  Dependence  upon  the  Materials  of  the  Lithosphere.  — 

Unless  our  attention  is  called  to  the  matter,  we  do  not  realize 
how  largely  we  use  the  mineral  substances  of  the  lithosphere. 
Our  food  consists  chiefly  of  grains,  fruits,  and  vegetables,  which 
grow  from  the  soil ; or  of  the  meat  of  animals,  which  feed  upon 
vegetation.  Clothing  is  made  of  cotton  or  linen  fibers,  which 
come  from  plants,  or  of  silk  or  woolen  fibers,  which  come  from 
animals,  both  of  which  depend  directly  or  indirectly  upon  the 
soil  for  their  life.  Houses  are  built  of  the  wood  of  trees,  which 
grow  in  the  soil,  or  of  brick,  stone,  mortar,  steel,  and  other 
mineral  substances.  So,  all  of  man’s  fuels,  utensils,  tools, 
machines,  and  materials  of  every  kind  may  be  traced  back  to  the 
lithosphere  that  yields  them.  During  the  thousands  of  years 
of  human  history,  man  has  been  learning  how  to  utilize  for  his 
own  well-being  and  advancement  what  the  earth  yields.  As  he  has 
learned  more  and  more  how  to  use  these  materials,  particularly 
the  metals,  he  has  advanced  in  civilization. 

Variety  of  Products  Obtained  from  the  Lithosphere.  — The 
varied  uses  to  which  man  puts  these  materials  may  be  seen  in 
the  construction  of  some  great  building.  The  Library  of  Con- 
gress in  Washington,  D.  C.,  may  serve  as  an  example  (Fig.  13). 
The  foundation  which  supports  the  dome  is  made  of  concrete, 
an  artificial  rock  made  of  crushed  stone,  sand,  cement,  and  water. 
The  cement  is  made  of  finely  ground  shale  and  limestone  com- 
bined under  intense  heat.  In  the  walls,  brick  and  tile  made  of 
baked  clay  are  used ; these  are  faced  on  the  outside  with  blocks 
of  white  granite  from  New  Hampshire,  and  on  the  inside  with 
polished  marble.  The  framework  of  the  dome  is  steel.  Within 

22 


THE  MATERIALS  OF  THE  EARTH’S  CRUST 


23 


the  building  are  marble  pillars,  arches,  and  staircases.  The 
roof  is  made  of  roofing  tile,  and  the  floors  of  ornamental  floor 
tile.  The  tiles  are  made  from  clay,  the  glass  mainly  from  quartz 
sand,  the  paint  of  ground  lead,  zinc,  or  some  other  mineral,  mixed 
with  oil.  There  are  bronze  doors ; brass  door  plates  and  hand 
rails,  nickel  fixtures,  gold-leaf  decorations,  copper  wire,  lead  pipe, 


j 


Fig.  13.  — The  Library  of  Congress,  Washington,  D.  C. 


tin  gutters,  and  asbestos  wrapping  for  steam  pipes.  In  fact,  a 
fireproof  building  is  built  almost  wholly  of  mineral  materials. 

Rocks,  Minerals,  and  Ores.  — Broadly  speaking,  soil,  sand, 
gravel,  and  even  ice,  are  forms  of  rock,  but  the  word  is  more 
commonly  applied  to  a mass  of  hard  mineral  substance  of  natu- 
ral origin.  A rock  may  be  composed  of  only  a single  mineral,  as 
in  the  case  of  pure  marble,  or  it  may  be  made  up  of  a number  of 
minerals,  as  in  granite.  Most  rocks  contain  several  minerals. 
Ores  are  minerals  or  rocks  containing  enough  of  some  metal  to 
make  its  extraction  profitable.  For  example,  an  ounce  of  gold 
scattered  through  a ton  of  rock  would  make  gold  ore,  because 
there  would  be  enough  gold  to  pay  for  extracting ; but  even  a 


24 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


hundred  pounds  of  iron  to  a ton  of  rock  would  ordinarily  be  of 
little  value  as  an  ore,  because  the  iron  obtained  would  not  pay 
for  smelting. 

Elements  and  Compounds.  — All  things  on  the  earth  or  in 


Fig.  14.  — Stratified  rocks.  The  different  layers  show  slightly  different  degrees  of 
resistance.  ( U . S.  Geol.  Sur.) 

it  are  made  up  of  about  80  elev tents  or  simple  substances.  Water, 
for  example,  is  called  a compound,  because  it  can  be  separated 
into  the  elements  oxygen  and  hydrogen ; but  gold,  silver,  copper, 
and  many  other  things  are  regarded  as  elements,  for  they  have 


THE  MATERIALS  OF  THE  EARTH’S  CRUST 


25 


not  as  yet  been  subdivided  into  anything  else.  In  nature  these 
80  elements  make  up  every  substance  and  object  much  as  the 
26  letters  of  the  alphabet  make  all  the  words  in  our  language. 

The  Rock-forming  Elements.  — Most  of  the  80  or  more  ele- 
ments which  are  known  to  exist  in  the  crust  of  the  earth  occur 
only  in  small  quantities ; it  is  estimated  that  8 elements  make 
up  98  per  cent  of  the  crust.1 

Classes  of  Rocks.2  — There  are  hundreds  of  varieties  of  rocks 
but  they  may  all  be  grouped  in  three  classes : 

1.  The  sedimentary  rocks.  These  are  by  far  the  most  common  and  are 
made  of  sand,  clay,  pebbles,  and  other  sediments,  which  were  deposited  ages 
ago  and  afterward  pressed  and  cemented  together.  Examples  — sandstone, 
limestone,  shale.  These  rocks  may  be  recognized  easily,  for  they  practically 
always  exist  in  layers  (Fig.  14). 

2.  The  igneous  rocks  are  those  which  have  been  under  such  intense  heat 
that  they  were  liquid  or  molten  and  afterward  cooled.  Granite  is  one  of 
the  best  known  examples.  Many  varieties  of  granite  may  be  seen  among 
the  tombstones  of  any  cemetery. 

3.  Metamorphic  rocks  are  those  which  were  once  either  sedimentary  or 
igneous  but  have  since  undergone  some  change  which  altered  their  character 
and  appearance.  For  instance,  by  prolonged  pressure  accompanied  by  heat, 
limestone  has  been  changed  into  marble. 

The  Sedimentary  Rocks.  — During  past  ages,  under  the  action  of  the  at- 
mosphere, the  rain,  and  running  water,  the  original  surface  rocks  decayed 
and  much  of  the  rock  waste  was  washed  into  the  streams  and  carried  to  the 
sea.  After  any  severe  rain  you  may  notice  how  muddy  the  streams  look. 
They  are  carrying  sediment,  much  of  which  at  last  reaches  the  ocean;  this 
silt  or  sediment  may  build  up  a delta  at  the  river’s  mouth  or  it  may  be  drifted 
back  and  forth  by  waves,  tides,  and  currents,  until  it  finally  settles  to  the 
bottom,  usually  within  100  or  200  miles  of  the  shore.  Some  does  not  reach 
the  sea,  but  is  carried  to  lakes  or  is  spread  over  the  flood  plains  of  rivers. 

Origin  of  the  Sedimentary  Rocks.  — Such  sediments  have  accumulated 
little  by  little  to  a depth  of  thousands  of  feet.  The  upper  layers,  resting 
upon  the  lower  ones,  compress  them.  Underground  water  brings  natural 
cementing  materials  and  binds  the  grains  together,  and  in  time  pressure 

1 Oxygen,  about  47%  Calcium,  about  3.4%  • 


2 During  your  study  of  physical  geography,  you  should,  if  possible,  visit  places 
where  the  earth’s  bed  rock  may  be  seen.  This  is  the  only  way  to  get  correct  ideas 
about  the  rocks  of  the  lithosphere.  Probably  you  cannot  find  in  your  own 
locality  examples  of  all  of  the  kinds  of  rock  mentioned  in  the  textbook,  but  if  you 
can  study  even  one  rock-ledge  or  quarry,  it  will  help,  and  you  will  find  such  a 
study  interesting  and  enjoyable. 


Silicon,  about  28% 
Aluminum,  about  7.8% 
Iron,  about  4.4% 


Potassium,  about  2.5% 
Sodium,  about  2.4% 
Magnesium,  about  2% 


26 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


and  further  cementing  convert  them  into  3olid  sedimentary  rock.  The  fine- 
grained mud  when  cemented  becomes  shale,  and  the  sand  becomes  sandstone. 
Farther  out  at  sea,  tne  skeletons  and  shells  of  myriads  of  creatures  which 
live  in  the  sea  sink  to  the  bottom,  and  these  make  limestone.  Shells  and 
other  fossils  are  also  found  in  sandstones  and  shales.  The  sandstone,  lime- 
stone, and  shale  are  the  commonest  rocks  found  at  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
They  are  in  layers,  sometimes  as  thin  as  paper,  but  usually  several  inches 


Fig.  15.  — Igneous  rock  of  columnar  structure,  formed  by  the  cooling  of  a sheet 

of  lava. 


or  feet  in  thickness.  They  are  also  called  stratified  rocks  because  they  occur 
in  layers  or  strata  (Fig.  14). 

The  Igneous  Rocks. — These  are  less  common  at  the  surface  of  the  earth 
than  are  the  sedimentary  rocks.  They  are  usually  found  in  mountainous 
regions  where  streams  have  eroded  away  the  overlying  sedimentary  rocks 
and  have  brought  to  view  the  igneous  rocks  below.  They  are  also  common 
in  regions  of  very  ancient,  worn-down  mountains,  like  New  England, 
southern  Canada,  and  parts  of  our  eastern  and  western  mountains.  When 
looked  at  closely,  igneous  rocks  are  seen  to  be  made  up  of  crystals  of  various 


THE  MATERIALS  OF  THE  EARTH'S  CRUST 


27 


minerals,  often  very  small.  Granite  is  a good  example,  for  the  crystals  of 
different  minerals  can  be  distinguished  easily. 

The  Metamorphic  Rockc. — !‘Metamorphic”  means  changed  inform.  By 
heat,  pressure,  and  other  agencies  acting  for  a long  time,  both  sedimentary 
and  igneous  rocks  are  greatly  modified.  Limestone  is  changed  to  marble. 


Fig.  16.  — Cabinet  showing  eight  stages  in  the  weathering  of  rock.  No.  1 is  un- 
weathered rock,  Nos.  2 to  8 show  progressive  stages  of  weathering  into  soil. 

shale  may  become  slate,  and  soft  coal  may  be  changed  to  hard  coal.  Be- 
cause of  the  great  length  of  time  during  which  the  oldest  rocks  have  been 
subjected  to  such  changes  they  are  usually  the  most  completely  metamor- 
phosed. 


Classes  of  Mineral  Substances 

The  lithosphere  contains  an  almost  endless  variety  of  rocks 
and  minerals  which  man  has  learned  to  use.  These  may  be 
grouped  as  follows : 

The  Metals,  — iron,  gold,  copper,  and  many  others  — some 
common,  some  rare.  Make  a list  of  the  familiar  ones. 

The  Mineral  Fuels,  — coal,  petroleum,  and  natural  gas. 

The  Building  Stones,  — granite,  marble,  sandstone,  lime- 
stone, slate,  and  others. 


28 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


The  Precious  and  Semiprecious  Stones,  — diamond,  ruby,  emer- 
ald, sapphire,  garnet,  agate,  amethyst,  opal,  turquoise,  etc. 

The  Masonry  Materials,  — (in  addition  to  stone)  clay,  sand,  ce- 
ment rock,  limestone  (for  lime). 

The  Mineral  Fertilizers,  — nitrates  (mainly  from  Chile),  phos- 
phate rock,  potash  salts. 


The  Mineral  Paints,  — the  body  of  practically  all  paints  is 


Pig.  17.  — Specimen  of  sandstone,  mag- 
nified. The  fragments  are  fine  grains 
of  sand,  cemented  together. 


some  form  of  ground-up  min- 
eral, particularly  lead  and  zinc; 
these  are  mixed  with  oil  and 
colors  to  form  paints. 

Mineral  Waters,  — contain- 
ing small  amounts  of  iron, 
sulphur,  and  various  medicinal 
salts. 

Miscellaneous  Minerals,  — 
salt,  asbestos,  graphite,  mica, 
asphalt,  talc,  borax,  and  many 
more. 

From  the  foregoing  list,  five 
of  the  much-used  minerals  have 
been  selected  for  more  detailed 
treatment  in  Chapter  IV : 


1.  Coal,  the  greatest  of  fuels. 

2.  Iron,  the  most  useful  of  the  metals. 

3.  Gold,  the  precious  metal. 

4.  Petroleum,  the  liquid  mineral. 

5.  Salt,  the  indispensable  mineral  food. 


EXERCISE  IV 

1.  Explain  in  your  own  words  the  meaning  of  each  of  the  following 
terms : 

1.  lithosphere  5.  ore  9.  sedimentary  rock 

2.  mineral  6.  element  10.  metamorphic  rock 

3.  rock  7.  compound  11.  stratified  rock 

4.  metal  8.  igneous  rock  12.  mineral  fuel 


THE  MATERIALS  OF  THE  EARTH’S  CRUST 


29 


2.  Let  a committee  of  the  class  make  a list  of  the  materials  from  the  earth's 
crust  which  are  used  in  the  construction  of  the  school  building. 

3.  Of  what  kinds  of  building  stone  are  some  of  the  prominent  buildings 
of  the  village  or  city  constructed? 

4.  Are  there  mines,  quarries,  clay  pits,  mineral  springs,  or  oil  wells  in 
your  county  or  in  your  part  of  the  state? 

5.  Let  a committee  of  the  class  ascertain  the  mineral  resources  of  the 
state  and  report  to  the  class.  Reports  of  the  Geological  Survey,  the  annual 
volumes  of  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  entitled  Mineral  Resources 
of  the  United  States,  or  the  article  on  your  state  in  a good  encyclopedia  will 
furnish  the  information. 

6.  The  making  of  an  educational  collection  of  materials  of  the  earth’s 
crust  is  an  interesting  and  instructive  exercise.  A cabinet  (a  broad,  shallow 
box  with  hinged  cover)  divided  into  small  compartments  can  be  made  in  the 
Manual  Training  Department.  This  is  convenient,  but  not  absolutely  nec- 
essary. The  following  plan  may  be  used  as  a suggestion,  but  may  be  modi- 
fied to  meet  local  conditions. 


Suggested  Arrangement  of  a Cabinet  and  Collection  to  Illustrate 
Materials  of  the  Earth’s  Crust 


Quartz 

Quartz  sand 

Sandstone 

Quartzite, 
gneiss,  or 
other  meta- 
morphic 
rock 

Glass 

(manufactured 
mainly  from 
quartz  sand) 

Feldspar  or 
other  mineral 

Clay 

Shale 

Slate 

Ore  of  iron, 
copper,  or  other 
metal 

Calcite  or 
other  mineral 

Glacial  till 

Limestone 

Marble 

Small  samples 
copper,  lead, 
zinc,  iron,  tin, 
nickel,  and 
other  metals 

Salt,  mica, 
asbestos,  or 
other  mineral 

Yellow,  brown, 
or  red  soil 
(stained  by 
iron  rust) 

Local  or  other 
sedimentary 
rock 

Local  or  other 
metamorphic 
rock 

Granite  or  other 
igneous  rock 

Peat 

Black  soil 

Soft  or  bitu- 
minous coal 

Hard  or  an- 
thracite coal 

Petroleum  or 
asphalt 

CHAPTER  III 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES  OF  THE 
UNITED  STATES 

Their  Great  Importance.  — Nature  has  richly  endowed  the 
United  States,  both  in  its  great  extent  of  agricultural  land,  and  in 


Fig.  18.  — A cluster  of  quartz  crystals.  They  are  normally  hexagonal  prisms  ter- 
minating in  hexagonal  pyramids. 

its  great  mineral  wealth ; its  known  mineral  resources  are  greater 
than  those  of  any  other  nation.  It  is  difficult  to  appreciate 

30 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


31 


the  large  part  which  the  minerals  play  in  the  daily  life  of  the 
people  of  civilized  countries.  Since  1885  onr  population  has 
doubled,  but  the  quantity  of  iron  mined  in  the  L nited  States  has 
increased  twenty  times.  No  nation  to-day  can  rise  to  a place 
of  leadership  unless  it  possesses  coal  and  iron.  The  quick  rise 
of  the  United  States  to  the  position  of  the  greatest  of  manu- 


Fig.  19.  — Mining  a coal  vein  of  good  thickness.  The  use  of  machines  has  greatly 
increased  the  output  of  coal  per  man.  ( JJ . S.  Bur.  of  Mines.) 


facturing  nations  could  not  have  occurred  without  the  almost 
unlimited  supply  of  these  two  minerals.  The  United  States 
and  the  Allies  could  not  have  won  the  great  World  War  without 
America’s  enormous  resources  of  coal,  iron,  petroleum,  and 
copper. 

Coal 

Origin.  — Man  could  do  without  gold  and  silver,  but  without 
coal  and  iron  he  never  would  have  made  a tithe  of  his  present 
advancement.  In  past  geological  ages  there  were  periods  when 
dense  vegetation  covered  great  areas  of  low,  wet  lands.  Here 


32 

Feet 

240- 

230- 

220  - 

210- 

200  - 

190- 

180- 

170- 

160- 

160  - 

140* 

130  - 

120  - 

110  - 

100  - 

90- 

80  ■ 

70- 

60- 

50- 

40  - 

30- 

20- 

FlC 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


o 

O 

cc 


COAL 
IQ  INCHES 


£ 

O 

o 

cc 

COAL 
4/2  FELT 


o 

o 

0: 

COAL 
5 FEET 


20.  — A section  of 
5 coal  measures  of 
stern  Pennsylvania. 


mosses,  shrubs,  and  fernlike  trees  grew 
luxuriantly.  In  time  vast  quantities  of 
vegetable  matter  collected  in  these  swamps 
and  from  it  thick  beds  of  peat  formed 
and  covered  thousands  of  square  miles. 
At  times  the  peat  beds  were  totally  sub- 
merged, and  clay  or  sand  was  washed  in 
upon  them.  In  this  way  were  built  up 
the  rocks  known  as  the  coal  measures,  con- 
sisting of  layers  of  coal  alternating  with  lay- 
ers of  rock  (Fig.  20). 

Where  the  World’s  Coal  Is  Found.  — 

Figure  21  shows  what  large  areas  of  the 
United  States  are  underlain  with  coal ; 
it  is  estimated  that  this  country  has  one- 
half  of  the  coal  of  the  world.  About  one- 
sixth  of  its  total  area  has  coal  beneath  the 
surface,  but  90  per  cent  of  all  the  coal  we 
use  is  mined  east  of  the  Mississippi.  Can- 
ada has  a sufficient  supply,  but  it  is  not 
favorably  located,  while  South  America  has 
very  little  indeed.  Europe  is  well  sup- 
plied. China  has  vast  fields  as  yet  scarcely 
touched.  Africa  has  but  little  and  Aus- 
tralia only  a moderate  amount. 

Peat,  the  beginning  of  coal,  is  a spongy, 
black  or  brown  mass  of  leaves,  roots,  stems, 
etc.,  which  collects  in  some  swamps  and  is 
partially  protected  from  decay  by  the 
covering  of  water.  In  some  countries  peat 
is  dug  out  in  blocks,  dried  in  the  sun,  and 
burned  for  fuel.  In  Ireland,  for  example, 
it  is  an  important  source  of  fuel. 

Lignite  is  sometimes  called  brown  coal. 
It  is  a better  fuel  than  peat  and  is  mined 
in  limited  quantities  in  the  West  and  South. 


'*1 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES  33 


Fig.  21.  — Coal  areas  of  the  United  States.  In  the  portions  marked  “Possible  coal  areas, ’’coal  is  known  to  exist,  and,  in  places, 

it  is  being  mined. 


34 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


While  our  extensive  beds  of  lignite  are  now  utilized  only  in  a 
small  way,  they  will  some  day  become  of  greater  value  when  the 
higher  grades  of  coal  are  exhausted. 

Soft  or  bituminous  coal  is  a better  fuel  than  lignite.  There 
are  many  grades,  ranging  from  one  little  superior  to  lignite  to 
one  nearly  as  hard  as  anthracite.  Bituminous  coal  burns  rap- 
idly with  much  smoke ; it  is  used  in  enormous  quantities  in  facto- 
ries, locomotives,  and 
steamships,  and  in  the 
making  of  coke. 

Hard  or  Anthracite 
Coal.  — Substantially 
all  of  this  comes  from 
a small  area  of  480 
square  miles  in  east- 
ern Pennsylvania 
(Fig.  22).  It  was  once 
soft  coal  like  that  in 
the  middle  western 
states,  but  the  layers 
of  coal  and  of  rock 
have  been  bent  into  great  folds  as  the  mountains  were  uplifted, 
and  the  heat  and  pressure  produced  by  this  folding  have  had 
a part  in  changing  the  bituminous  coal  into  anthracite. 

The  Energy  in  Coal.  — The  importance  of  coal  is  due  to  the 
vast  amount  of  heat,  or  energy  from  the  sun,  which  the  plants 
and  trees  absorbed  while  they  were  growing,  and  which  they 
stored  up  in  their  tissues.  By  burning  the  coal  this  stored-up 
energy  can  be  turned  into  power  and  be  used  for  running  ma- 
chinery, drawing  trains,  and  propelling  steamships.  Enough 
power  is  locked  up  in  a single  pound  of  coal  to  do  as  much  work 
as  a laboring  man  does  in  a day ; in  300  pounds,  as  much  as  he 
does  in  a year;  and  yet  this  300  pounds  costs  less  than  a dollar. 
It  is  said  that  in  a modern  locomotive  an  ounce  of  coal  will  draw 
a ton  of  freight  a mile.  If  every  person  in  the  world  were  an  able- 
bodied  workingman,  the  entire  1,600,000,000  people  could  not  do 


Fig.  22.  ■ — The  black  areas  represent  the  anthra- 
cite coal  fields  of  Pennsylvania.  From  these 
small  areas  comes  practically  all  of  the  anthra- 
cite coal  mined  in  the  United  States. 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


35 


as  much  work  as  is  now  being  done  by  coal.  This  means  that 
man  has,  as  it  were,  another  human  race  of  workers  placed 
at  his  service,  workers  that  require  no  food,  clothing,  or  shel- 
ter. 

Coal  in  the  United  States.  — Eight  hundred  thousand  men 
are  employed  in  our  coal  mines ; these  with  their  families  make 


Fig.  23.  — Cars  of  bituminous  coal  pass  from  the  mine,  through  the  weighing 
house,  up  the  inclined  plane  and  into  the  tipple  where  they  dump  the  coal 
into  railroad  cars  below.  ( TJ . S.  Bur.  of  Mines.) 


a population  as  large  as  that  of  Norway.  In  the  last  40  years 
the  use  of  coal  in  the  United  States  has  increased  about  20  times 
as  fast  as  the  population.  Coal  does  the  cooking  or  heating, 
or  both,  in  10,000,000  homes  in  this  country,  besides  doing  75  per 
cent  of  our  manufacturing.  One  reason  why  manufacturing  is 
done  mainly  in  the  northeastern  quarter  of  the  United  States  is 
the  presence  there  of  our  best  coal  fields. 


36 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Distribution  in  the  United  States.  — It  is  estimated  that  we 
have  at  least  3,000,000  million  (3,000,000,000,000)  tons  of  coal 
which  can  be  mined ; about  ewo-  of  this  is  now  being  used 

yearly,  but  the  min- 
ing goes  on  more  and 
more  rapidly.  The 
Appalachian  coal  field, 
which  yields  more 
than  all  the  others 
combined,  extends 
from  Pennsylvania  to 
Alabama  (Fig.  21). 
It  is  900  miles  long 
and  from  30  to  180 
miles  wide.  The  sepa- 
rate seams  or  layers 
of  coal  vary  from  less 
than  an  inch  to  many 
feet  in  thickness,  but, 
as  a rule,  only  the 
seams  that  are  four 
feet  or  more  thick  are 
worked.  At  present 
90  per  cent  of  the  coal 
mined  in  the  United 
States  is  mined  east  of 
the  Mississippi  River. 

Waste.  — Mining 
methods  in  the  past 
have  wasted  practically  half  of  the  coal  by  leaving  it  in  great 
pillars  in  the  mines  to  support  the  rock  above.  Our  engines 
utilize  scarcely  15  per  cent  of  the  energy  in  the  coal,  and  lose 
the  rest.  Unless  the  people  of  this  generation  learn  to  be  less 
wasteful  of  coal,  future  generations  may  suffer ; but  to  a cer- 
tain extent  the  steadily  rising  price  of  coal  will  check  this 
waste. 


Fig.  25.  - — Coal  from  a mine  mouth  in  the  hill- 
side is  dumped  from  the  mine  cars- into  the  chute 
which  delivers  it  to  the  railroad  cars  on  the  track 
below.  ( U . S.  Bur.  of  Mines.) 


L.Mani  '■obi. 


Devils 

L. 


mLssoula  IV 
.'AnacoDda®^^^ 
Butte  l!.; 


marcl 


f4l6w£ 

U^X]pAR. 


■ •LeadcoP 
1 //zf//s  7? 


>cate;/o , 


1 7^/1  7-^ 

A® 

KtAjX^  <>  ■ 


fnson''*^ 

Wichita* 


Arka)/l( 


taton- 


Santa  P9 
iquergf^ 


Oklahor 


>Glob<f' , 


^ Roswell, 


Waco1 


Austin' 


tonio! 


Cancer 


BRASKA 

4 / ' ~~~A^rov°  GreeJjby  7”!  ^Island,, 

W.  !..  r j 3^  Lincol“l 

Denver~~P~ 

-u 

function  r»o(v‘  I • Colorado 


POLITICAL  MAP  OF  TH 


UNITED  STATES 


FIG.  24 


FIG.  24 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


37 


Iron 

Occurrence  in  Nature.  — Fortunately  for  mankind,  iron,  the 
most  useful  metal,  is  readily  obtained.  On  an  average,  iron  forms 
nearly  4i  per  cent  of  the  earth’s  crust.  Only  three  elements, 
oxygen,  silicon,  and  aluminum,  are  more  common.  It  occurs  in 


Fig.  26.  — The  above  cubes  are  proportional  in  volume  to  the  estimated  coal  re- 
sources of  the  United  States,  the  world,  and  the  various  continents.  The  va- 
cant space  in  the  anthracite  cube  represents  the  proportion  already  mined. 


more  than  a hundred  different  minerals,  but  four  of  these  sup- 
ply practically  all  of  the  iron  which  is  actually  used,  and  one 
of  them  (hematite)  supplies  nine-tenths  of  the  iron  smelted  in 
the  United  States. 

A small  quantity  of  iron  is  present  in  nearly  all  rocks  and 
shows  in  the  yellow  or  brown  stain  which  discolors  them  when 
they  weather ; soils  owe  their  rusty  color  to  the  iron  in  them. 
The  quantity  of  iron  in  most  rocks  is  small,  and  only  when 
some  natural  agency  has  brought  the  iron  together  or  con- 
centrated it  is  there  enough  to  pay  for  mining.  Just  as  special 
circumstances  in  past  ages  have  led  to  the  accumulation  of 


38 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


salt  or  coal  or  petroleum  in  certain  places,  so  have  they  at 
times  caused  the  accumulation  of  iron.  In  most  cases  these 
iron  deposits  would  not  pay  for  mining  if  the  ore  had  not  been 
still  further  concentrated  by  the  prolonged  action  of  under- 
ground waters. 

How  Iron  Ore  Is  Obtained  and  Handled.  — Iron  ore  is  usually 

mined  in  one  of  two  ways : either  the  ore  is  located  deep  in  the 


Fig.  27.  — Percentage  of  iron  ore  mined  in  different  parts  of  the  United  States 
in  an  average  year.  Note  that  three  states  — Minnesota,  Michigan,  and 
Alabama  — produce  95  per  cent  of  the  total. 

Each  dot  represents  one  per  cent.  States  producing  less  than  one  per  cent  not  shown. 

earth  and  must  be  obtained  by  digging  down  to  it,  or  else  it  lies 
near  the  surface  and  may  be  mined  by  “open-pit”  methods.  The 
most  productive  mines  in  the  world  are  the  open-pit  mines  of 
the  Mesabi  Range  in  northeastern  Minnesota.  Here  ore  of  great 
richness  lies  almost  at  the  surface.  By  removing  a top  layer 
of  glacial  drift  the  ore  is  reached  and  can  be  shoveled  up  like 
gravel  in  steam  shovels  which  scoop  up  several  tons  at  a time 
and  load  a 50-ton  car  in  three  or  four  minutes  (Fig.  29).  The 
ore  trains  then  proceed  to  Superior,  Duluth,  or  Two  Harbors  on 
Lake  Superior  and  run  out  on  high  trestles,  called  ore  docks, 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


39 


reaching  nearly  a half  mile  out  into  the  lake  (Fig.  30).  Built 
into  the  ore  docks  under  the  railroad  tracks  are  storage  bins 
high  above  the  water.  Spouts  lead  from  the  bins  to  the 
ore  steamers,  which  carry  the  ore  down  the  lakes,  chiefly 
to  ports  on  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Michigan.  The  ore  cars  have 
trap  doors  in  the  bottom;  when  these  are  opened,  the  50  tons 
of  ore  slides  into  one  of  the  bins  below.  When  the  steamers 


Fig.  28.  — Map  showing  the  mineral  product  of  largest  annual  value  (1920)  in 

each  state. 


carrying  as  high  as  14,000  tons  of  ore  reach  their  destination, 
they  are  quickly  unloaded  by  powerful  machinery.  So  cheaply 
is  the  ore  mined,  handled,  and  transported  that,  despite  the  high 
wages  paid  in  this  country,  steel  can  be  made  in  the  United  States 
at  lower  cost  than  anywhere  else  in  the  world.  The  fleet  of  ore- 
carrying  steamers  on  the  Great  Lakes  is  greater  than  the  entire 
merchant  fleet  of  some  important  nations,  and  the  tonnage  of 
ore  passing  through  the  Detroit  River  in  the  seven  or  eight  open 
months  is  several,  times  as  large  as  the  total  tonnage  passing 
through  the  Suez  Canal  in  a year. 

Iron  and  Steel  Centers.  — Extracting  the  metallic  iron  from 


40 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


the  ore  which  contains  it  requires  intense  heat.  This  is  obtained 
by  burning  coke  mixed  with  the  ore  and  with  limestone  in  the 
smelting  furnaces.  The  heat  causes  the  limestone  to  unite  with 
the  earthy  material  in  the  ore ; the  iron  is  set  free  and  flows 
to  the  bottom  of  the  furnace,  whence  it  is  drawn  out,  a white- 
hot  liquid,  and  is  cast  into  pig  iron  or  is  made  into  steel.  The 


Fig.  29.  — Iron  ore  loaded  by  steam  shovel  in  an  open-pit  mine  in  northern  Min- 
nesota. ( Courtesy  Oliver  Iron  Mining  Co.) 


smelting  of  ore  and  the  manufacture  of  steel  require  an  enor- 
mous amount  of  coke  and  coal.  Hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars 
of  capital  are  invested  and  tens  of  thousands  of  men  are  em- 
ployed. The  largest  corporation  ever  organized,  having  a capital 
of  more  than  a billion  dollars,  is  engaged  in  the  production  of 
iron  and  steel.  Since  coke  is  essential  and  is  produced  mainly 
from  eastern  coal,  and  since  the  demand  for  steel  is  greatest 
in  the  East,  the  iron  and  steel  industry  became  established  in 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


41 


the  East,  especially  in  the  Pittsburgh  district  and  near  the  Great 
Lakes  in  New  York,  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois.  So  intimately 
is  this  giant  industry  interwoven  with  all  other  industries  that 
men  gauge  the  prosperity  of  the  country  from  month  to  month 
by  watching  the  activity  in  the  iron  and  steel  trade. 

The  Principal  Iron-mining  States  and  Countries.  — Eighty 
per  cent  of  our  iron  ore  comes  from  the  region  of  Lake  Superior. 
The  most  important  group  of  mines  is  in  the  famous  Mesabi 


Fig.  30.  — Iron  ore  docks  (Superior,  Wis.) , where  iron  ore  is  received,  stored,  and 
loaded  into  steamships.  ( Courtesy  Oliver  Iron  Mining  Co.) 


Range  in  Minnesota,  north  of  Duluth.  This  is  the  open-pit 
mining  region  referred  to  in  an  earlier  paragraph.  This  single 
range  produces  more  than  half  of  the  iron  mined  in  the  United 
States,  and  nearly  one-fourth  of  that  mined  in  the  world.  The 
leading  states  and  the  per  cent  of  the  nation’s  production  mined 
in  them  are  as  follows  : 

Minnesota,  which  produces  about  62  per  cent. 

Michigan  (Upper  Peninsula),  about  25  per  cent. 

Alabama,  around  Birmingham,  about  8 per  cent. 

In  the  terms  of  peace  following  the  World  War,  France  regained 
Lorraine  and  its  very  rich  iron  mines.  France,  therefore,  is  likely 
to  become  a greater  producer  of  iron  than  Germany. 


42 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Spain,  Sweden,  Belgium,  Japan,  Brazil,  Cuba,  and  many 
other  countries  also  have  valuable  iron  deposits,  though 
they  produce  much  less  than  any  one  of  the  four  leading 
countries,  the  United  States,  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Ger- 
many. 


Copper 

Uses.  — In  its  importance  to  man  copper  is  second  to  iron 
among  the  metals.  It  enters  into  the  making  of  a host  of  ar- 


Fig.  31.  — Principal  copper-producing  states.  Each  dot  represents  one  per  cent 
of  the  total  production  of  the  United  States.  Figures  after  names  of  states 
signify  millions  of  pounds  produced  in  1918,  which  was  the  year  of  second 
greatest  production  to  date  (1922). 

tides,  the  most  important  of  which  is  copper  wire  for  carrying 
electric  currents.  Copper  is  such  an  excellent  conductor  of  elec- 
tricity that  it  is  used  in  all  kinds  of  electrical  appliances  and 
machinery,  — telephone,  telegraph,  electric  lights,  electric  cars, 
motors,  dynamos,  and  many  others.  In  most  copper  ores  the 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


43 


metal  is  combined  with  other  substances,  from  which  it  must 
be  separated  by  smelting  and  refining. 

Where  Our  Copper  Comes  From.  — In  the  northern  penin- 
sula of  Michigan  nearly  pure  metallic  copper  is  mined,  masses 
of  the  metal  weighing  hundreds  of  tons  being  occasionally  en- 
countered in  the  mining  operations.  The  mines  reach  more 
than  a mile  down  into  the  earth  and  have  yielded  upwards  of 
5,000,000,000  pounds  of  copper. 

More  than  half  the  copper  annually  produced  in  the  world 
is  mined  in  the  United  States.  It  is  mined  to  some  extent  in 
25  states,  but  nine-tenths  of  our  output  (equal  to  half  of  the 
world’s  production)  comes  from  four  states  — Arizona,  Montana, 
Michigan,  and  Utah  — and  some  65  per  cent  comes  from  four 
mining  regions1  (Fig.  31). 


Gold 

Value.  — Its  rich  and  beautiful  color,  its  rarity,  and  the  ease 
with  which  it  may  be  made  into  any  shape  have  caused  gold  from 
earliest  times  to  be  esteemed  a precious  metal ; it  is  not,  however, 
the  most  costly.  Gold  is  worth  about  $20  an  ounce,  platinum 
several  times  as  much,  and  radium  hundreds  of  times  as  much. 
Gold  coin  is  the  standard  of  value  in  nearly  all  countries. 

Occurrence.  — Gold  exists  in  exceedingly  minute  quantities 
in  many  rocks.  It  has  been  estimated  that  on  an  average 
gold  forms  one  part  in  a billion  of  the  earth’s  crust.  In  deep- 
seated  rocks  it  may  possibly  exist  in  larger  quantities.  Through 
the  pores  and  fissures  of  such  rocks  hot  waters  and  vapors  have 
circulated ; it  is  believed  that  under  favorable  conditions  these 
hot  waters  and  vapors  dissolve  some  of  the  gold  and  other 
minerals,  and,  upon  rising  and  cooling,  they  deposit  these  dis- 
solved minerals  in  fissures  near  the  surface,  slowly  filling  them 
and  making  gold-bearing  veins.  Such  veins  may  be  only  a small 
part  of  an  inch  in  width  or  they  may  be,  in  rare  cases,  hundreds 
of  feet  wide ; they  vary  from  a few  feet  to  many  miles  in  length. 

1 Butte,  Montana;  northern  Michigan;  Bisbee,  Arizona;  and  Bingham,  Utah. 


44 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Placer  Deposits.  — When  the  rocks  containing  such  gold  de- 
posits are  eroded  by  streams,  the  current  carries  the  eroded 
material  downstream  and  deposits  the  sand,  gravel,  and  gold 
in  deltas,  bars,  and  alluvial  fans,  which  are  called  placer  deposits, 
or  simply  placers.  In  placer  mining  the  grains  and  nuggets  of 
gold  are  obtained  by  a process  of  washing  which  separates  the 
gold  from  the  lighter  sand  and  gravel. 

Distribution.  — South  Africa  is  the  greatest  gold-producing 


Fig.  32.  • — A gold  dredge  in  California.  Gold-bearing  gravels  are  dredged  up,  the 
gold  extracted,  and  the  tailings  thrown  out  at  the  rear;  $75,000,000  in  gold 
has  thus  been  recovered  in  California.  (U . S.  Bur.  of  Mines.) 


region  in  the  world,  followed  in  order  by  the  United  States 
and  Australia.  California  and  Colorado  are  our  leading  states 
in  the  production  of  gold,  but  it  is  mined  in  twenty  other  states 
and  in  Alaska.  The  United  States  produces  from  $60,000,000 
to  $80,000,000  of  gold  annually,  a large  sum,  yet  it  is  less 
than  one-tenth  of  the,  value  of  the  petroleum,  and  not 
one-twentieth  the  value  of  the  coal  produced  in  the  United 
States. 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


45 


Petroleum 

Origin.  — It  is  believed  that  petroleum  was  formed  during 
past  ages  from  lowly  forms  of  plants  and  animals.  Natural 
gas  usually  occurs  in  the  earth  in  connection  with  petroleum,  the 
two  being  held  under  great  pressure  beneath  an  impervious  cover 
of  fine-grained  rock,  such  as  shale.  If  it  had  not  been  that  this 


Fig.  33.  ■ — - The  petroleum-producing  districts  of  the  United  States.  The  figures 
indicate  percentage  of  the  total  which  the  various  states  produced  in  1919, 
except  in  case  of  47,  which  applies  to  the  field  included  in  Oklahoma,  Kansas, 
and  Missouri. 


impervious  roof  prevented  the  gas  and  oil  from  escaping,  they 
would  long  ago  have  been  lost. 

Oil  Wells.  — Sometimes  when  a well  is  drilled  through  these 
overlying  beds  of  shale,  the  pressure  of  the  gas  drives  the  oil  up- 
ward with  terrific  force.  One  well  in  Mexico  spouted  at  the  rate 
of  150,000  barrels  a day  for  a week,  sending  a stream  of  oil  600 
feet  into  the  air.  The  pressure  soon  subsides,  however,  and  in 
a few  months  or  years,  the  oil  has  to  be  pumped,  the  wells  yield- 


46 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


ing  less  and  less  each  year.  Seven  years  has  proved  to  be  the 
average  life  of  a well  in  Pennsylvania.  Exceptional  wells  yield 
hundreds,  even  thousands,  of  barrels  a day  for  a time,  but  the 
average  of  all  wells  is  only  four  or  five  barrels  a day.  Though 
sometimes  called  “ coal  oil,”  petroleum  has  no  necessary  connec- 
tion with  coal.  It  is  found  in  regions  where  there  is  no  coal,  as, 
for  example,  in  southern  California. 

Where  Produced.  —The  United  States  produces  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  petroleum  used  in  the  world,  and  the  Mexican  fields 
near  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  are  the  second  largest  producers.  Many 
of  the  Mexican  wells  are  “gushers”  or  very  large  producers : 300 
wells  in  Mexico  yield  one-sixth  as  much  as  200,000  wells  in  the 
United  States.  The  Russian  field  near  the  Caspian  Sea  ranks 
third. 

For  some  years  after  the  discovery  of  oil  in  1859,  all  our 
petroleum  came  from  Pennsylvania,  which  still  has  a very  high 
record  among  the  states  in  total  production.  Some  years  ago 
there  were  from  40,000  to  50,000  producing  wells  in  that  state, 
but  the  output  has  declined  to  2 per  cent  of  the  annual  production 
of  the  United  States.  Two  counties  in  northwestern  Pennsyl- 
vania had  over  14,000  wells  each,  but  the  majority  of  these  have 
been  abandoned. 

Petroleum  is  produced  in  about  twenty  of  our  states  (Fig.  33)  ; 
the  Ivansas-Oklahoma  field  produced  40  per  cent  and  California 
29  per  cent  of  the  nation’s  output  in  1920.  New  oil  fields  are  dis- 
covered almost  yearly  and  old  fields  decline. 

Refining  and  Transportation.  — The  fact  that  petroleum  is  a 
liquid  and  that  it  has  to  be  transported  in  enormous  quantities 
has  led  to  the  building  of  specially  designed  tank  wagons,  tank 
cars,  and  tank  steamers,  and  also  to  the  laying  of  thousands 
of  miles  of  pipe  lines  (Fig.  34).  Oil  is  pumped  through  these 
pipes  from  the  oil  fields  to  the  refineries,  and  from  the  interior 
of  the  country  to  the  exporting  cities  on  the  seacoast.  The 
refining  and  sale  of  the  products  of  petroleum  have  built  up  one 
of  the  richest  and  most  powerful  corporations  in  the  world. 

Uses.  — Crude  oil  is  used  for  fuel  in  engines  and  locomotives, 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


47 


especially  in  the  Far  West  and  Southwest,  where  coal  is  scarce. 
It  is  now  preferred  for  large  ships  because  it  is  less  bulky  than  coal. 
By  refining  it  a great  number  of  products  are  obtained ; chief 
among  them  are  kerosene  and  gasoline.  The  uses  of  the  former 


for  lighting  and  of  the  latter  for  power  are  two  of  the  boons  to 
civilized  man  in  the  last  generation.  The  list  of  by-products 
of  petroleum  reaches  over  300 ; among  these  are  paraffin,  vase- 
line, lubricating  oil,  naphtha,  tar,  and  coke. 


48 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Natural  Gas 

Origin.  - — The  same  agencies  which  have  formed  petroleum  in 
the  rocks  of  the  earth  have  also  produced  natural  gas.  The  two 
are  usually  found  together,  although  some  districts  yield  gas  but 
no  petroleum.  Both  are  found  by  drilling  wells,  usually  to  a 
depth  ranging  from  several  hundred  to  2000  or  3000  feet.  The 
value  of  the  natural  gas  at  present  actually  used  in  the  United 
States  is  twice  as  great  as  the  annual  value  of  all  the  gold 
mined. 

Regions  of  Production.  — It  is  an  ideal  fuel,  and  in  the  regions 
where  it  is  produced  it  is  surprisingly  cheap.  West  Virginia 
and  Pennsylvania  have  been  the  greatest  producers  of  natural 
gas,  followed  by  Ohio,  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  and  many  other 
states. 

Waste  of  Gas.  — - The  waste  of  natural  gas  is  appalling.  In  one 
district  in  Louisiana,  70,000,000  cubic  feet  a day  burned  for  years 
in  the  open  air.  In  West  Virginia  it  was  estimated  that  at  one 
time  the  fuel  value  of  the  gas  which  was  allowed  to  go  to  waste 
was  equal  to  a carload  of  coal  every  minute. 

Salt 

Occurrence.  — Salt  in  very  minute  quantities  is  found  in  rocks 
and  soils.  It  is  leached  out  by  surface  and  ground  waters  and 
is  carried  by  streams  to  the  sea  or  to  inland  lakes.  So  small 
is  the  quantity  of  salt  in  river  water  that  we  call  it  fresh.  As 
the  water  of  the  ocean  or  of  undrained  lakes  evaporates,  the  salt 
and  other  dissolved  solids  are  left  behind  and  slowly  accumu- 
late ; they  form  over  3 per  cent  of  the  sea  water  and  as  much  as 
20  per  cent  of  Great  Salt  Lake  in  Utah,  and  of  the  Dead  Sea 
in  Palestine.  It  has  been  estimated  that  400,000,000  tons  of 
common  salt  are  dissolved  in  the  water  of  Great  Salt  Lake,  and 
that  every  cubic  mile  of  ocean  water  contains  over  100,000,000 
tons  of  salt. 

Origin  of  Salt  Beds.  — As  evaporation  goes  on  for  ages,  the 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


49 


water  of  salt  lakes  or  lagoons  becomes  more  and  more  saline  un- 
til the  crystals  of  salt  begin  to  collect  on  the  bottom  and  sides. 
Thus,  beds  of  salt  were  accumulated,  always  in  regions  of  dry  cli- 
mate. Later  these  salt  beds  were  covered  by  strata  of  clay  and 
sand  which  in  time  became  sedimentary  rocks.  The  present 
salt  beds  are  found  buried  sometimes  only  a few  feet  deep,  as  in 
Louisiana,  but  more 
often  many  hundreds 
of  feet  deep,  as  in  New 
York  and  Michigan. 

Methods  of  Ob- 
taining the  Salt.  — 

Salt  is  a necessity 
and  it  is  fortunate 
that  it  is  found  in 
nearly  every  part  of 
the  world.  In  some 
places,  as,  for  example, 
in  Louisiana  and  in 
Austria,  it  is  mined 
like  coal.  In  other 
places,  wells  are  bored 
down  into  the  salt 
beds  ; water  is  pumped 
into  the  well  to  dis- 


solve the  salt  and  is 
afterward  pumped  out 
as  brine ; the  brine  is 
evaporated  by  artificial  heat  or  by  the  sun,  and  the  salt  collects  in 
crystals.  The  water  of  Great  Salt  Lake  and  sea  water  on  the 
coasts  of  California,  Italy,  Spain,  and  other  places,  where  little 
rain  falls  in  summer,  is  conducted  into  shallow  ponds,  where  it 
is  evaporated  by  the  sun’s  heat.  In  Poland,  near  Cracow,  are 
enormous  salt  mines ; there  are  miles  of  corridors  where  the  salt 
has  been  taken  out,  and  there  is  a village  where  the  miners  live 
underground. 


Fig.  35.  — Crystals  of  rock  salt.  When,  the  salt 
crystals  are  able  to  grow  unhampered  they  form 
cubes. 


50 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Other  Mineral  Products 

Silver.  — Mexico  and  the  United  States  are  the  foremost  pro- 
ducers of  silver.  1 he  value  of  our  annual  output  in  1920  ex- 
ceeded that  of  gold.  It  is  nearly  all  mined  in  the  western  states, 
especially  Montana,  Utah,  Nevada,  Idaho,  and  Colorado. 

Lead. — The  United  States  produces  about  one-third  of  the 
lead  mined  in  the  world,  Missouri  and  Idaho  furnishing  SO  per 
cent  of  our  output.  Australia  and  Spain,  the  second  and  third 
countries  in  rank,  together  supply  about  the  same  amount  as  the 
United  States  alone.  Besides  its  use  in  the  making  of  lead  pipe, 
shot,  and  type  metal,  it  is  used  in  great  quantities  in  the  manu- 
facture of  paint. 

Zinc.  • — - The  principal  lead-  and  zinc-mining  region  of  the 
United  States  is  the  Joplin  district  in  southwestern  Missouri  and 
extending  into  the  adjacent  states  of  Kansas,  Oklahoma,  and 
Arkansas.  Northern  New  Jersey  is  also  a large  producer,  followed 
by  Colorado,  Montana,  and  Wisconsin.  Among  foreign  countries, 
Germany  and  Australia  are  leaders.  Zinc  is  much  used  in  “gal- 
vanizing ” iron  to  prevent  rusting,  and  is  an  important  ingredient 
of  brass  and  certain  paints. 

Other  Minerals.  — - In  addition  to  the  foregoing  mineral  prod- 
ucts, the  United  States  produces  many  others,  including  alu- 
minum, quicksilver  or  mercury,  granite,  marble,  clay,  mineral 
fertilizers,  mineral  waters,  and  limestone  for  lime  and  cement 
(Fig.  28). 


EXERCISE  V 

1.  How  do  the  known  mineral  resources  of  the  United  States  compare 
in  value  with  those  of  any  other  nation? 

2.  What  minerals  are  regarded  as  of  greatest  value  to  man?  Why  not 
gold  and  silver? 

3.  Why  is  the  possession  of  coal  beds  of  very  great  importance  to  a 
nation? 

4.  What  is  the  origin  of  coal? 

5.  What  is  peat?  Name  a country  in  which  it  is  considerably  used  for 
fuel.  Suggest  a reason  why  it  is  used  there  but  not  in  the  United  States. 


MINERAL  RESOURCES  AND  INDUSTRIES 


51 


6.  Name  the  several  kinds  of  coal  and  their  chief  differences. 

7.  Where  is  practically  all  our  anthracite  coal  obtained? 

8.  By  what  process  was  anthracite  coal  formed  from  bituminous  ? 

9.  What  is  meant  by  energy  ? Why  does  coal  possess  a kind  of  energy? 
How  does  man  make  use  of  this?  Illustrate  the  working  power  of  coal. 

10.  What  nations  have  large  resources  of  coal?  What  fraction  of  the 
world’s  coal  is  possessed  by  the  United  States  ? 

11.  Locate,  and  give  the  dimensions  of  our  most  important  coal  field. 
What  is  our  foremost  coal-producing  state?  In  what  other  states  are  large 
amounts  of  coal  mined? 

12.  Why  is  such  a high  percentage  of  the  coal  (90  per  cent)  mined  east 
of  the  Mississippi  River?  How  is  this  fact  connected  with  our  manufac- 
turing industries  ? 

13.  Note  in  Fig.  20  how  small  a proportion  of  the  “coal  measures”  the 
coal  itself  actually  forms.  Estimate  the  proportion  as  shown  in  this 
drawing. 

14.  What  per  cent  of  the  rocks  of  the  earth’s  crust  is  iron? 

15.  Of  the  hundred  or  more  minerals  that  contain  iron  how  many  are 
mined  for  their  iron  ? 

16.  By  what  process  are  iron  deposits  “concentrated”  or  rendered  rich 
enough  in  metallic  iron  to  make  their  mining  profitable  ? 

17.  Give  an  account  of  the  methods  by  which  iron  ores  of  the  Mesabi 
region  are  mined  and  transported. 

18.  Where  are  the  principal  centers  of  iron-smelting  ? How  is  iron  smelted  ? 
Why  is  most  of  it  smelted  east  of  the  Mississirr  i ? Why  near  'the  Great 
Lakes  ? Why  so  largely  in  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio  ? 

19.  What  are  the  principal  iron-mining  states?  About  what  per  cent 
does  Minnesota  produce? 

20.  What  foreign  countries  mine  large  quantities  of  iron?  What  is  the 
leading  iron-  and  steel-making  city  of  the  United  States? 

21.  Why  is  copper  much  more  extensively  used  than  formerly? 

22.  What  four  states  supply  most  of  our  copper? 

23.  By  what  natural  processes  have  gold  veins  originated?  What  are 
“placers”? 

24.  Where  are  the  most  productive  gold  mines  of  the  world?  Wh'ich 
ones  of  our  states  are  the  leading  producers  of  gold? 

25.  Compare  the  value  of  the  gold  and  of  the  coal  annually  mined  in  the 
United  States. 

26.  What  is  believed  to  be  the  origin  of  petroleum?  With  what  other 
valuable  fuel  is  it  often  associated?  Is  there  any  reason  for  calling  it  “coal 
oil”? 

27.  How  is  petroleum  obtained?  How  transported?  Where  are  the 
chief  oil  fields  ? What  states  lead  in  oil  production  ? 

28.  What  fraction  of  the  world’s  petroleum  is  obtained  in  the  United 
States  ? What  country  is  second  in  production  ? third  ? 

29.  Name  several  products  which  are  made  from  petroleum.  Two  of 
these  have  exerted  a great  influence  upon  modern  life.  Explain. 


52 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


30.  How  is  natural  gas  obtained  and  for  what  is  it  used?  Why  is  so  much 
wasted  ? 

31.  Where  does  the  salt  in  the  sea  come  from?  What  is  the  origin  of  the 
salt  beds  in  the  earth?  How  is  salt  obtained?  Where?  For  what  is  it 
used? 

32.  Where  in  the  United  States  is  silver  extensively  mined?  lead?  zinc? 
For  what  is  each  used? 


CHAPTER  IV 


ROCK  WEATHERING  AND  SOIL 

The  Atmosphere 

Composition  of  the  Atmosphere. — The  atmosphere  is  com- 
posed mainly  of  two  gases,  nitrogen  (about  four-fifths)  and  oxy- 
gen (about  one-fifth).  Nitrogen  is  one  of  the  most  passive  ele- 
ments in  nature,  showing  little  tendency  to  unite  with  other 
elements.  Oxygen,  on  the  contrary,  is  very  active ; it  has  an 
affinity  for  nearly  every  other  element ; that  is,  the  molecules  of 
oxygen  have  a strong  tendency  to  unite  with  molecules  of  other 
elements.  It  is  the  life-giving  substance  of  the  air ; without  it 
neither  man  nor  the  lower  animals  can  live;  it  causes  fires  to 
burn,  wood  to  decay,  iron  to  rust,  and  rocks  to  crumble.  In 
addition  to  the  oxygen  and  nitrogen,  there  is  a fraction  of  a 
per  cent  of  carbonic  acid  gas  (or  carbon  dioxide),  and  small 
amounts  of  water  vapor,  dust  particles,  and  some  other  sub- 
stances. The  large  proportion  of  inert  nitrogen  makes  the  atmos- 
phere far  less  active  than  it  would  be  if  the  oxygen  were  present 
in  greater  quantity. 

You  are  to  think  of  the  atmosphere 

(a)  as  being  very  light  and  very  easily  set  in  motion ; 

(b)  as  penetrating  into  the  soil  and  rocks  and  water ; 

(c)  as  being  capable  of  absorbing,  holding,  and  carrying  heat 
and  water  vapor ; 

( d ) as  containing  the  exceedingly  active  gas,  oxygen,  which 
is  absohdely  essential  to  animal  life,  and  a small  fraction  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas,  which  is  required  by  green  plants ; 

(e)  as  causing  many  important  changes  at  and  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  lithosphere. 


53 


54 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


A World  without  an  Atmosphere.  — What  would  be  the  na- 
ture of  a world  without  an  atmosphere  ? The  moon  is  such  a 
world  and  is  so  near  that  with  large  telescopes  we  can  see  its  sur- 
face; on  the  moon  no  wind  ever  blows,  no  sound  ever  floats,  no 
dust  ever  rises,  no  clouds  ever  form,  no  rain  ever  falls  — for  none 
of  these  phenomena  can  occur  without  an  atmosphere.  There  is 
no  water  on  the  moon ; and  without  air  and  water  rocks  do  not 
decay  and  soil  does  not  form ; there  are  no  storms,  no  dew  nor 


Fig.  36.  — Weathering  of  a granite  dome  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains. 
([/.  S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


ice,  no  streams  to  gully  the  mountain  sides,  no  rivers  to  carry 
sediment.  On  a planet  without  air  and  water  no  animal  can 
live,  and  not  a blade  of  grass  or  a shrub  or  a tree  can  grow.  Lofty 
mountains  rise  above  the  plains  of  the  moon,  but  they  probably 
stand  almost  unchanged  from  age  to  age,  for  the  air  and  the  water, 
the  two  agents  that  ceaselessly  attack  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
have  no  existence  there. 


ROCK  WEATHERING  AND  SOIL 


55 


In  contrast  let  us  now  consider  the  work  performed  by  our 
atmosphere  and  by  the  water  that  it  distributes. 

Weathering 

The  Agents  of  Waste.  — The  wind,  rain,  frost,  changes  of 
temperature,  underground  water,  plants  and  animals,  all  grouped 
together,  are  called  the  agents  of  waste.  Naturally  these  agents 
do  their  work,  called  weathering,  at  the  surface  of  the  lithosphere. 


Fig.  37.  — Drifts  of  wind-blown  sand.  (U.  S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


On  bare  hill  slopes  and  mountains,  unprotected  by  vegetation, 
they  do  their  work  with  greatest  ease  and  greatest  rapidity  (Fig.  36). 
Where  the  rocks  are  covered  with  a protective  layer  of  soil  and 
carpeted  with  vegetation,  the  agents  of  waste  do  their  work  much 
more  slowly. 

Wind  Work. — The  work  of  the  wind,  slowly  wearing  away 
the  rocks,  goes  on  chiefly  in  regions  where  rainfall  is  light  and 
vegetation  sparse.  In  these  dry,  bare  lands  the  wind  sweeps  up 
the  sand  and  drives  it  against  exposed  faces  of  the  rock,  wearing 
and  polishing  them  and  slowly  destroying  them.  It  has  been 


56 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  38.  — Peculiar  erosion  of  rocks  due  to  the  pro- 
longed action  of  sand  driven  by  the  wind.  The 
least  resistant  parts  of  the  rocks  are  worn  away 
most  rapidly. 


again  it  makes  a 
great  difference 
whether  or  not  the 
slopes  are  covered 
with  vegetation.  The  rain  has  but  little  weathering  or  eroding 
effect  where  grass  or  woods  cover  the  ground. 

Frost  Work.  — All  known  rocks  are  full  of  tiny  pores  and  are 
more  or  less  cracked  and  fissured,  so  that  water  and  air  pene- 
trate them.  When  it  is  cold  enough,  the  water  in  the  rock  freezes, 
and  in  so  doing  expands  with  tremendous  force,  thus  be- 
coming a powerful  agent  in  splitting  rocks.  It  has  been  com- 
puted that  this  force  is  equal  to  300,000  pounds  per  square  foot. 


estimated  that  in  a severe  wind  storm  in  such  a region  there  are 
upwards  of  100,000  tons  of  dust  and  sand  in  a cubic  mile  of  the 
lower  air  (Fig.  37).  In  arid  regions  fence  posts  and  telegraph 
poles  are  cut  off  just  above  the  ground  by  the  constant  action  of 

the  blowing  sand,  and 
rocks  are  sometimes 
carved  into  grotesque 
forms  (Fig.  38). 

Rain  Work. — When 
rain  falls  upon  the  hills 
and  mountains,  it 
washes  any  loose  rock 
waste  down  their 
slopes  and  thus  un- 
covers the  surface  of 
the  rock  and  exposes 
it  to  further  attacks 
of  the  weather  (Fig. 
36).  The  rain  itself, 
beating  upon  the  softer 
parts  of  the  rocks, 
wears  them  slightly 
and  aids  in  their  slow 
destruction.  Here 


ROCK  WEATHERING  AND  SOIL 


57 


This  means  that  if  2000  average  persons  could  bring  all  their 
weight  to  bear  on  a square  foot  of  surface,  the  expansive  force 
of  freezing  water  could  lift  them.  On  steep  cliffs  large  blocks 
of  rock,  as  well  as  small  fragments,  are  split  off  by  the  frost  and, 
sliding  to  the  base  of  the  cliffs,  build  up  sloping  heaps  of  broken 
rock  called  talus  (Fig.  39).  On  gentle  slopes  and  on  plains  frost 
work  is  less  effective,  yet  by  splitting  the  rocks  into  pieces  it 
hastens  their  decay  and  aids  in  the  making  of  soil.  This  form 
of  weathering,  due  to  the  force  of  freezing  water,  is  called  wedge 


Fig.  39.  — Remnant  of  a sheet  of  lava  forming  a butte.  The  weathered  frag- 
ments form  the  talus  slope.  (U.  S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


work.  An  idea  of  its  power  may  be  gained  by  tightly  corking 
a bottle  which  is  completely  filled  with  water,  and  then  allow- 
ing it  to  freeze.  Wedge  work  cannot,  of  course,  go  on  where 
the  climate  is  always  warm. 

Changes  of  Temperature.  — When  a solid  substance  such  as 
iron  or  rock  is  heated,  it  expands,  or  becomes  larger.  When 
cooled,  it  contracts,  or  becomes  smaller.  These  changes  are  com- 


58 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


parativelv  slight  and  cannot  he  noted  by  the  eye,  yet  the  force 
exerted  is  practically  irresistible. 

When  the  sun’s  rays  beat  down  upon  the  bare  face  of  a rock 
it  becomes  hot,  sometimes  very  hot,  but  the  heat  does  not  pene- 
trate far  into  the  rock.  Thus  the  outer  part  expands  and  con- 
tracts more  than  does  the  inner  part,  and  finally  pieces  of  rock 

scale  off,  and  some- 
times large  rocks  are 
split  asunder.  The 
more  extreme  and  the 
more  rapid  the  changes 
of  temperature,  the 
greater  the  amount  of 
weathering  done  (Fig. 
40).  In  deserts,  where 
the  air  is  very  dry 
and  clear,  the  differ- 
ence between  the  tem- 
perature of  day  and 
of  night  is  more 
marked  than  it  is  in 
a moist  climate. 
Travelers  in  deserts 
tell  of  hearing  sounds  like  the  report  of  a gun  due  to  the  burst- 
ing of  rocks  that  are  being  heated  or  cooled  rapidly. 

Work  of  Plants  and  Animals.  — The  roots  of  trees  have  re- 
markable power  to  push  their  way  into  crevices  in  the  rocks,  and 
as  the  roots  grow  larger  they  split  the  rocks,  prying  them  apart, 
and  thus  exposing  new  surfaces  to  the  weather  (Fig.  41).  Bur- 
rowing animals  like  the  gopher  and  woodchuck,  earthworms  and 
other  forms  of  animal  life,  as  well  as  lowly  plants  like  mosses 
and  lichens,  all  do  a little  toward  the  breaking  up  of  the  rocks 
and  the  mixing  of  the  rock  waste.  The  work  done  by  a single 
animal  or  plant  would  not  be  worth  mentioning,  but  the  com- 
bined work  of  millions  during  long  ages  is  enormous  in  ex- 
tent. 


Fig.  40.  — A bowlder  weathering  by  exfoliation,  — 
that  is,  by  the  scaling  off  of  one  layer  after 
another  under  the  influence  of  changing  tempera- 
ture and  possibly  of  frost  action.  (U . S.  Geol. 
Sur.) 


ROCK  WEATHERING  AND  SOIL 


59 


Mechanical  and  Chemical  Work  of  the  Atmosphere.  — Such 
processes  as  the  wearing  away  of  rocks  by  wind  or  water,  or  the 
splitting  of  rocks  by  frost,  heat,  or  roots,  are  called  mechanical 
'processes.  They  simply  reduce  the  rock  to  smaller  fragments, 
and  these  differ  from  the  original  rock  only  in  size,  not  in  com- 
position. There  are  other  forms  of  weathering,  however,  in  which 
the  rock  is  not  only 
reduced  to  small 
pieces,  but  its  com- 
position is  changed ; 
that  is,  it  decays. 

This  is  not  a me- 
chanical, but  a chemi- 
cal, change.  The  rust- 
ing of  iron,  the  de- 
caying of  wood,  and 
the  souring  of  milk 
are  other  examples  of 
chemical  changes. 

The  Decay  of  Rocks. 

— The  oxygen  and 
the  carbonic  acid  gas 
of  the  air,  aided  by  the  water,  are  most  important  weathering 
agents.  Rocks  are  made  up  of  interlocked  crystals  or  of  grains 
and  fragments  bound  together  by  natural  cement.  When  this  ce- 
ment is  loosened  by  the  action  of  the  air  and  water,  the  grains 
fall  apart,  causing  the  rock  to  crumble.  Thus  air  and  water, 
by  working  their  way  into  the  pores  and  crevices  of  the  rocks, 
produce  these  changes  called  decay  (Fig.  42).  One  of  the  clear- 
est evidences  that  weathering  agents  are  at  work  upon  a rock  is 
its  gradual  change  in  color.  Rust-colored  stains,  due  to  the  work 
of  oxygen  and  water  upon  grains  of  iron  in  the  rock,  appear,  and 
the  piece  of  rock  begins  to  look  old  and  soft.  Perhaps  a blow 
with  a hammer  will  shatter  it.  Farmers  call  it  rotten  stone,  and, 
in  fact,  such  it  is. 

Depth  of  Decay.  — The  depth  to  which  the  bed  rocks  decay 


Fig.  41.  — A bowlder  split  asunder  by  the  growth 
of  the  tree's  roots.  ( U . S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


60 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


varies  with  different  conditions,  climates,  and  kinds  of  rock.  In 
a warm,  moist  climate  decay  goes  on  rapidly.  In  some  of  our 
southern  states  rocks  are  known  to  be  decayed  to  a depth  of  100 
feet,  and  it  is  reported  that  in  parts  of  Brazil  they  are  decayed 
to  a depth  of  300  to  400  feet.  These  are  probably  extreme  cases. 
Usually  the  layer  of  decayed  rock  is  a few  yards  or  less  in 


Fig.  42.  — Weathering  of  rock.  Note  the  disintegrated  top  layer,  and  the  pile  of 
weathered  fragments  that  have  dropped  to  the  base  of  the  cliff.  The  top  layer 
is  residual  soil.  ( Wis . Geol.  Sur.) 


depth.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  rock  has  been  weathered 
to  only  a few  yards  in  depth,  for  much  of  the  weathered  rock  has 
been  washed  away,  or  carried  away  in  the  ground-water.  For 
example,  in  a part  of  Wisconsin,  where  limestone  has  been  de- 
caying for  ages,  it  is  estimated  that  less  than  a foot  of  soil  re- 
mains for  every  ten  feet  of  the  original  limestone,  the  balance 
having  been  carried  away  by  water. 


ROCK  WEATHERING  AND  SOIL 


61 


Weathering  and  Soil.  — Disintegrated  rock,  no  matter  how 
fine,  is  not  necessarily  soil;  the  addition  to  this  rock  waste  of 
decayed  animal  or  vegetable  matter,  called  lmmus , makes  it  soil. 
Since  the  weathering  of  rocks  by  the  atmosphere  is  necessary  to 
produce  soil,  and  since  soil  is  necessary  to  produce  the  food  upon 
which  we  live,  it  follows  that  the  second  great  service  'performed 
for  man  by  the  atmosphere  is  the  making  of  soil. 

Other  Effects  of  Weathering.  — Besides  soil,  there  are  other 
products  of  rock  weathering  which  are  valuable  to  man.  Sand 
is  required  in  making  glass,  mortar,  and  concrete ; and  clay  in 


Fig.  43.  — A cut  into  the  earth.  In  this  figure  notice  the  soil  on  top,  partly  de- 
cayed rock  lower  down,  and  solid  rock  below  that. 


making  brick,  tile,  and  pottery.  Weathering  agents  etch  the 
mountain  ridges  into  peaks,  domes,  and  pinnacles.  The  softer 
and  weaker  parts  yield  first,  forming  notches  in  the  ridge,  while 
the  firmer  portions  resist  and  stand  up  as  peaks.  Some  of  this 
work  is  done  by  running  water  and  the  process  is  then  called  ero- 
sion. Weathering  and  erosion  work  together  and  both  are  most 
effective  on  the  bare  rocks  and  steep  slopes  of  mountains  (Fig.  36). 

Injurious  Effects  of  Weathering.  — Weathering  is  by  no  means 
always  beneficial  to  man’s  interests.  The  air  attacks  the  wood 
and  softens  the  stone  of  his  buildings ; it  rusts  the  iron  of  his 
bridges  and  corrodes  many  of  the  metals.  To  prevent  this,  man 
paints  the  wood  of  his  houses  and  the  iron  of  his  bridges.  For 


62 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


his  expensive  stone  structures  he  selects  a rock,  such  as  granite, 
that  will  long  resist  the  attacks  of  the  weather.  Weathering 
is  much  harder  to  combat  in  a warm,  moist  climate  than  in  a 
dry  or  cool  climate.  In  hot  regions  railroad  ties,  rails,  and  other 
equipment  deteriorate  rapidly.  The  Egyptian  obelisk,  called 
Cleopatra’s  needle,  which  had  remained  practically  uninjured  for 
3000  years  in  the  dry  air  of  Egypt,  began  to  scale  almost  im- 
mediately after  it  was  set  up  in  the  moist  climate  of  New  York, 
and  it  had  to  be  coated  with  a protective  varnish  to  prevent  the 
destruction  of  the  hieroglyphics  carved  on  its  sides. 

Suggestion.  — The  study  of  weathering  is  made  more  interesting  and  im- 
pressive by  making  a collection  of  materials  which  show  the  action  of  the 
weather.  Interested  pupils  will  secure  small  pieces  of  fresh  iron  and  of  rusted 
iron,  of  sound  wood  and  of  decayed  wood,  of  firm  rock  and  weathered  rock. 
It  is.  possible  to  find  pieces  of  rock  in  various  stages  of  weathering  or  decay, 
showing  gradations  from  firm  rock  to  completely  disintegrated  rock. 

Summary  of  Weathering 

Most  rocks  are  composed  of  crystals  or  of  grains  bound  to- 
gether by  a natural  cement.  All  surface  rocks  contain  pores, 
cracks,  and  crevices  by  which  air  and  water  enter.  Oxygen, 
carbon  dioxide,  and  water  attack  the  rocks,  loosen  the  grains  or 
crystals,  and  the  rock  slowly  crumbles.  In  dry  regions  wind- 
driven  sand  wears  away  the  exposed  rocks  and  gradually  destroys 
them.  The  rain  washes  away  loose  material  and  keeps  the  sur- 
face of  the  rock  exposed  to  the  weather.  Water  in  the  cracks 
freezes  (in  our  climate),  expands,  and  splits  the  rock  (wedge 
work).  The  expanding  and  contracting  of  the  rocks  by  heating 
and  cooling  weakens  them  and  causes  them  to  scale  off  and  to 
split ; trees  send  their  roots  into  cracks  and  pry  the  rocks  apart ; 
all  these  agencies  produce  the  important  effect  known  as  rock 
weathering. 

Weathering  goes  on  most  rapidly  in  mountains  where  the 
loosened  fragments  slide  down  the  slopes  or  are  washed  down, 
thus  exposing  the  rocks  anew  to  the  attacks  of  the  weather.  In 


ROCK  WEATHERING  AND  SOIL 


63 


comparatively  level  regions  the  weathered  rock  may  accumulate 
to  a considerable  depth,  but  usually  the  larger  part  is  carried 
away  in  the  ground  water  or  is  washed  away  by  streams.  The 
most  important  result  of  weathering  is  the  production  of  soil, 
which  is  rock  waste  mixed  with  humus.  Not  all  weathering  is 
beneficial ; the  decay  of  wood  and  the  rusting  of  iron  are  kinds 
of  weathering  which  man  has  to  combat. 

The  Soil 

Importance  of  the  Soil.  — More  people,  the  world  over,  live 
by  cultivating  the  soil  than  by  all  the  other  occupations  combined. 
In  the  densely  peopled  lands  of  China  and  India,  about  four  peo- 
ple in  every  five  cultivate  little  patches  of  land,  from  which  they 
derive  their  living.  Even  in  such  highly  developed  nations  as 
France  and  Germany,  nearly  half  of  the  people  live  by  farming. 
In  our  own  country  one-third  of  the  people  who  are  engaged  in 
gainful  occupations  are  farmers  or  farm  hands. 

The  Importance  of  Agriculture.  — Agriculture  lies  at  the  foun- 
dation of  all  industries,  for  by  it  the  1,600,000,000  of  the  world’s 
people  are  fed.  Food  in  ever  increasing  amount  the  world  must 
have,  and  practically  all  of  it  must  come,  directly  or  indirectly,  from 
the  soil.  The  farmer  is  our  greatest  manufacturer,  and  the  land 
is  the  greatest  of  all  factories.  Here  the  raw  materials — air,  water, 
sunshine,  and  mineral  matter  — are  manufactured  into  food  ; more- 
over, this  is  a factory  that  can  go  on  producing  food  century 
after  century,  as  the  soil  of  China  has  done  for  4000  years. 

The  Soil  Our  Greatest  Producer  of  Wealth.  — Vast  as  is  the 
value  of  the  gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  coal,  and  other  mate- 
rials taken  from  the  mines  and  quarries  of  the  United  States  each 
year,  all  of  this  put  together  amounts  to  only  one-fourth  of  the 
annual  value  of  our  farm  products ; the  Secretary  of  Agriculture 
estimates  this  at  10  billion  dollars  a year,  and  more  than  this 
in  the  war  years  1917  and  1918.  Our  cotton  crop  alone  is  worth 
more  than  the  annual  output  of  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones 
of  the  entire  world.  Our  corn  crop  exceeds  in  value  the  annual 


64 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


exports  of  all  the  countries  of  South  America.  Although  we  have 
a population  of  over  a hundred  million  people  whom  we  must 
feed,  we  are  still  exporting  great  quantities  of  food ; this  is  partly 
because  the  United  States  is  a big  country.  When  all  of  our 
possible  farm  lands  are  tilled,  even  with  the  average  care  that 
is  employed  in  France  or  England,  our  crops  will  be  enormously 
increased.  A third  of  the  people  of  the  world  live  in  China  and 
India,  and  nearly  all  of  their  food  is  produced  on  an  area  smaller 
than  the  United  States. 

Chief  Components  of  Soil.  — The  rock  waste  which  forms  the 
bulk  of  the  soil  is  composed  largely  of  clay  and  sand,  the  prin- 
cipal substances  into  which  rocks  weather.  Clay  is  exceedingly 
fine ; it  constitutes  about  one-fourth  of  average  soil  and  gives 
to  it  its  sticky  quality.  Most  of  the  mineral  food  of  plants  is 
obtained  from  the  clay  and  almost  none  from  the  sand,  which  is 
largely  made  up  of  grains  of  a very  hard,  glassy  substance  known 
as  quartz.  Sand  is  a useful  part  of  the  soil,  for  it  helps  to  make 
the  ground  loose,  porous,  and  easy  to  till.  Loam  is  a mixture 
of  clay  with  sand  or  gravel  and  humus,  and  is  one  of  the  best 
forms  of  soil. 

The  Humus.  — When  leaves,  straw,  roots,  etc.,  decay  in  the 
soil,  or  when  animal  waste  is  added  to  the  soil,  they  give  to  it  the 
substances  stored  up  in  their  own  tissues,  much  of  which  was  orig- 
inally taken  from  the  soil.  This  animal  and  vegetable  matter 
forms  what  is  known  as  Immus;  it  makes  the  soil  dark  colored 
and  loose  and  easily  penetrated  by  air,  water,  and  roots  of  plants. 
The  layer  of  black  top-soil,  rich  in  humus,  is  the  most  produc- 
tive part. 

The  Work  of  Animal  Life  in  Improving  the  Soil.  — Earth- 
worms, small  as  they  are,  are  important  agents  in  improving  the 
soil.  Charles  Darwin  made  a study  of  this  subject,  particu- 
larly in  Australia,  and  found  that  the  millions  of  earthworms, 
passing  earth  through  their  bodies,  mix  it,  add  fertility,  and  make 
it  porous.  He  estimated  that  on  an  average  eleven  tons  of  valu- 
able organic  matter  are  added  yearly  to  each  acre  of  soil  where 
the  earthworms  are  abundant.  Burrowing  animals  and  some 


ROCK  WEATHERING  AND  SOIL 


65 


species  of  ants  also  help  to  mix  and  loosen 
the  soil.  These  creatures  seem  to  be  of 
trifling  importance,  but  myriads  of  them, 
steadily  working  through  the  ages,  have 
done  probably  much  more  than  is  realized 
toward  improving  the  soil. 

Importance  of  Soil  Bacteria.  — This 
mixture  of  rock  waste  and  humus,  called 
soil,  is  not  the  simple  thing  it  seems  to 
be ; it  is  a wonderfully  complex  sub- 
stance, teeming  with  millions  of  minute, 
living  things,  soil  bacteria.  In  a thimble- 
ful of  good  soil  there  are  countless  mi- 
croscopic plants,  multiplying  and  dying 
so  fast  that  forty  or  fifty  generations 
begin  and  end  their  existence  in  a day ; 
yet  they  do  an  important  work  in  the 
short  span  of  their  lives.  Most  of  these 
bacteria  are  beneficial,  but  not  all.  One 
of  the  most  valuable  recent  discoveries 
is  that  certain  bacteria  take  nitrogen 
from  the  air  and  produce  a fertilizing 
substance,  called  nitrates,  which  accumu- 
late in  the  soil.  Some  of  the  bacteria  occur 
on  the  roots  of  plants,  especially  plants  of 
the  clover  family  (Fig.  44).  When  these 
roots  decay,  the  nitrates  are  added  to  the 
soil.  Thus,  by  raising  crops  of  clover  and 
alfalfa,  soil  fertility  is  maintained,  or  even 
increased.  The  nitrogen-fixing  bacteria 
thrive  best  in  warm,  loose,  airy  soil ; moist 

Soil  Substances  Needed  by  Plants.  — 
different  elements  that  must  exist  in  the 
plant  growth.1  Potash,  phosphorus,  and 

1 These  are  oxygen,  hydrogen,  carbon,  nitrogen,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  iron,  potash, 
lime,  and  magnesium- 


Fig.  44.  — Nodules  on  a 
root.  These  are  due  to 
nitrogen-fixing  bacteria. 
The  nodules  are  composed 
in  part  of  nitrogen  taken 
from  the  air  and  stored 
up  in  a form  that  plants 
can  use.  ( Peabody  and 
Hunt.) 

but  not  water-soaked. 
There  are  at  least  ten 
soil  to  insure  healthy 
nitrogen  are  the  ones 


66 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


of  greatest  importance;  yet  they  form  but  a very  small  part  of 
the  soil,  and,  with  unscientific  methods  of  farming,  may  be  rapidly 
used  up.  By  placing  mineral  fertilizers  and  animal  and  plant 
waste  on  the  land,  the  fertility  is  maintained. 

Residual  and  Transported  Soil.  — As  rocks  decay,  some  of 
the  soluble  minerals  are  leached  out  by  ground-water ; parts  may 
be  washed  away  or  transported  by  the  wind,  but  usually  some 
remains  where  it  is  formed  and  in  time  makes  a layer  of  soil  on 
top  of  the  slowly  decaying  rock.  This  is  called  residual  soil  (Fig. 
42).  Some  residual  soils,  especially  in  limestone  regions,  are  re- 
markably fertile.  The  famous  Blue  Grass  region  of  Kentucky, 
and  the  great  Appalachian  Valley  are  instances.  Others  are  in- 
fertile, for  example,  the  sandy  soils  yielded  by  sandstone. 

Soils  Transported  by  the  Wind.  — Some  of  the  rock  waste 
is  blown  by  the  wind  and  builds  up  sand  dunes  and  hills,  such  as 
the  sand  hills  of  Nebraska;  or,  under  special  conditions,  spreads 
out  a rich,  fine  soil  called  loess,  as  in  the  upper  Mississippi  Valley 
and  in  China.  Because  of  its  fineness  and  fertility,  loess  is  the 
most  important  kind  of  wind-blown  soil. 

Soils  Transported  by  Water.  — At  times  of  flood,  rivers  and 
creeks  overflow  their  banks  and  spread  a film  of  alluvium  over 
the  valley  bottoms.  Being  made  up  of  materials  from  the  surface 
of  the  land,  alluvium  is  likely  to  be  of  exceptional  fertility,  as  it  is 
in  the  valley  of  the  Nile  or  on  the  “ Mississippi  bottoms.”  The 
alluvial  soils  of  the  earth,  where  they  are  not  marshy,  are  among 
the  best.  Some  of  the  famous  flood  plains  are  described  in 
Chapter  X. 

Soils  Transported  by  Ice.  — Glacial  soils  cover  more  than  half 
of  North  America  and  a third  of  Europe.  It  is  believed  that 
the  glacial  soils,  on  account  of  their  thorough  mixing,  comparative 
newness,  and  varied  composition,  are  better  than  the  residual 
soils  of  these  same  regions  would  have  been.  The  most  pro- 
ductive farming  regions  of  the  United  States  have  glacial  soils ; 
yet  there  are  also  excellent  soils  in  the  South  and  West,  where  the 
glaciers  did  not  reach.  In  parts  of  eastern  Canada  and  New  Eng- 
land, and  in  scattered  localities  elsewhere,  glaciated  land  is  so 


ROCK  WEATHERING  \ND  SOIL 


67 


strewn  with  bowlders  that  its  value  is  materially  reduced ; while 
in  parts  of  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  north  Germany,  the  gla- 
cial drift  is  very  sandy,  and  hence  is  not  good  farm  land.  Glacial 
drift  usually  contains  a large  proportion  of  clay,  which  makes  the 
basis  of  an  excellent  soil.  Owing  to  the  relative  newness  of  glacial 
soil  it  has  lost  but  little  of  its  mineral  plant-food  by  leaching. 

Soil-Creep.  — As  the  soil  on  the  slopes  freezes  and  thaws,  or 
is  otherwise  loosened,  gravity  tends  to  pull  it  down  the  slope.  By 
this  almost  imper- 
ceptible creep,  soil 
gradually  works  its 
way  down  the  steeper 
slopes  from  the  up- 
lands to  lowlands. 

Soil-Wash  or  Ero- 
sion.— On  slopes 
that  are  not  pro- 
tected by  vegetation, 
the  run-off  during  a 
rain  makes  gullies 
in  the  land  and  much 
of  the  soil  is  washed 
away  (Fig.  45).  In 
this  way  large  areas 
in  China,  where  the 

forests  have  been  stripped  off,  have  become  practically  worth- 
less. A movement  is  on  foot  in  this  country  to  preserve  or  re- 
store the  forests  on  mountain  sides  and  other  steep  slopes,  and 
thus  to  prevent  soil  erosion.  On  ordinary  slopes  a covering  of 
grass  is  sufficient  to  protect  the  land,  and  these  slopes  may 
properly  be  given  over  to  the  grazing  of  cattle  and  sheep. 
Gentle  slopes  are  cultivated  without  serious  loss  of  soil  by 
erosion. 

The  Preference  of  Certain  Crops  for  Certain  Kinds  of  Soil.  — 

Any  fertile  soil  contains  the  food  required  by  almost  any  plant. 
Differences  in  climate  are  more  important  to  plants  than  differ- 


Fig.  45.  • — A bare  rock  slope  gullied  by  wet- weather 
streams.  If  soft  rock  or  soil  is  unprotected  by 
a covering  of  vegetation,  the  agents  of  weather- 
ing and  erosion  work  upon  it  effectively.  (U.  S. 
Geol.  Sur.) 


68 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


ences  in  soil,  yet  certain  crops  plainly  show  a preference  for 
certain  kinds  of  soil.  Pastures  and  meadows,  for  example,  do 
better  on  soil  which  contains  a large  proportion  of  clay,  for  clay 
retains  water,  which  grass  requires,  in  large  amounts.  Potatoes 
and  rye  grow  best  in  soils  which  contain  much  sand ; and  large 
areas  of  the  sandy  plains  of  northern  Germany,  for  example,  are 
given  over  to  those  crops.  Germany,  in  fact,  leads  the  world 
in  the  production  of  potatoes  and  is  second  only  to  Russia  in  rye. 
The  tobacco  used  in  making  cigars  is  particularly  dependent  for 
its  flavor  upon  the  character  of  the  soil.  A Government  bulletin 
says,  “So  marked  is  this  influence  of  soil  upon  the  quality  of 
the  tobacco  that  a fine,  bright  tobacco  land  may  be  separated 
by  only  a few  feet  from  a clay  soil  which  will  produce  only  a 
heavy  manufacturing  or  export  leaf.”  Rice  grows  in  the  wet, 
alluvial  soil  of  lowlands,  while  the  tea  plant  requires  just  the 
opposite  conditions,  the  well-drained  slopes  of  hills.  Cotton 
grows  best  in  black  lowland  soil,  rich  in  humus;  and  the  coffee 
of  Brazil  in  the  red  upland  soil,  rich  in  iron. 

Forests  and  Soils.  — The  kind  and  quality  of  trees  are  largely 
dependent  upon  the  condition  and  quality  of  soil.  In  northerly 
regions  pines  are  nearly  always  found  on  sandy  soils,  while  clay 
soils  generally  produce  hardwood  trees.  In  our  northern  forests 
differences  in  the  proportion  of  sand  in  a soil  give  rise  to  differ- 
ences even  in  the  kind  of  pine  trees  that  predominate.  The  poor- 
est of  these  soils  produces  the  poor  Jack  pine,  while  the  better 
soils  produce  the  valuable  white  pine. 

EXERCISE  VI 

Making  a Summary  of  the  Section  on  Soil 

It  is  suggested  that  the  pupils  make  a summary  of  the  second  part  of  this 
chapter.  In  this  instance  it  may  be  done  as  follows : Read  the  paragraphs 
carefully  one  by  one  and  select  from  each  the  sentence  which  seems  to  con- 
tain either  the  substance  of  the  paragraph  or  its  main  idea.  For  example, 
in  the  first  paragraph,  “Importance  of  the  Soil,”  this  sentence  is  plainly  the 
hrst.  In  some  paragraphs  a part  of  a sentence  may  be  selected  or  parts  of 
two  sentences  may  be  combined.  In  some  paragraphs  it  may  be  necessary 
to  state  the  summary  sentence  entirely  in  your  own  language.  Write  these 
in  your  notebook  and  preserve  them  for  purposes  of  review. 


ROCK  WEATHERING  AND  SOIL 


69 


EXERCISE  VII 

1.  Why  is  oxygen  called  an  active  element  and  nitrogen  a passive  element? 

2.  Why  are  conditions  on  the  surface  of  the  moon  utterly  unlike  those 
on  the  surface  of  the  earth? 

3.  Why  does  rock  weathering  proceed  more  rapidly  on  mountains  than 
on  plains?  on  steep  slopes  than  on  gentle?  on  bare  slopes  than  on  wooded? 

4.  Why  is  wind  erosion  more  important  in  a dry  climate  than  in  a moist 
one? 

5.  Why  does  the  rain  have  “but  little  eroding  or  weathering  effect  where 
grass  or  woods  cover  the  ground”  ? 

6.  Why  is  the  work  of  frost  called  wedge  work  f How  is  the  frost  an 
effective  weathering  agent? 

7.  Why  do  changes  of  temperature  aid  in  breaking  up  the  rocks  ? 

8.  Why  do  rocks  decay? 

9.  Why  is  weathered  rock  not  necessarily  soil? 

10.  Why  is  weathering  both  beneficial  and  harmful  to  man’s  interests  ? 

11.  Why  is  the  soil  the  most  valuable  of  all  natural  resources? 

12.  Why  is  the  soil  the  greatest  of  manufactories  ? 

13.  Why  are  we  justified  in  considering  the  soil  of  the  United  States  our 
greatest  producer  of  wealth? 

14.  Why  is  clay  the  most  important  constituent  of  ordinary  soil?  Of 
what  value  is  sand? 

15.  Why  do  soils  lose  fertility?  How  may  it  be  restored? 

16.  Why  is  humus  an  essential  part  of  the  soil  ? 

17.  Why  are  earthworms  a benefit  to  soil? 

18.  Why  are  certain  forms  of  bacteria  of  great  benefit  to  the  soil? 

19.  Why  are  some  residual  soils  fertile  and  others  sterile? 

20.  Why  are  alluvial  soils  nearly  always  fertile? 

21.  Why  are  glacial  soils  likely  to  be  fertile?  Are  they  always  fertile? 

22.  Why  does  soil  creep  down  hill  slopes? 

23.  Why  does  cultivation  of  steeply  sloping  land  soon  lead  to  the  loss  of 
soil? 

24.  Why  does  Germany  devote  much  of  her  land  to  rye  and  potatoes  ? 

25.  Why  does  the  character  of  a forest  give  a clew  to  the  quality  of  the 
soil  upon  which  it  grows? 


CHAPTER  V 


AGRICULTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES1 

Crops  and  Prosperity.  — The  prosperity  of  the  American  peo- 
ple is  more  closely  connected  with  agriculture  than  with  any  other 
industry.  Nearly  a third  of  our  population  live  on  farms.  When 
crops  are  good,  the  country’s  business  feels  the  stimulus,  and 
every  other  industry  shares  in  the  prosperity.  The  value  of  our 
farm  products  is  a fabulous  sum,  amounting  to  ten  billion  dollars 
yearly.  This  is  three  or  four  times  the  value  of  the  coal,  iron, 
copper,  gold,  silver,  and  other  minerals  taken  from  our  mines, 
quarries,  and  oil  fields  annually. 

The  Importance  of  Weather  to  Agriculture.  — Climate  and 
weather  are  not  the  same.  The  climate  of  the  Middle  West,  for 
example,  is  excellently  suited  to  the  growing  of  corn,  yet  excep- 
tionally dry  weather  during  the  month  of  July  has  reduced  the 
corn  crop  of  the  United  States  several  hundred  millions  of  bushels. 
The  prolonged  drought  in  the  summer  of  1913  cost  the  farmers 
of  the  grain-growing  states  not  less  than  five  million  dollars  a 
day.  A difference  of  two  inches  in  the  amount  of  summer  rain- 
fall may  change  the  wheat  crop  of  the  Northwest  by  200,000,- 
000  bushels.  Plail  storms  not  infrequently  damage  the  crops 
of  a small  area  at  the  rate  of  $100,000  a minute,  and  violent  winds 
have  blown  a quarter  of  a million  bushels  of  apples  from  the 
orchards  of  New  York  in  a single  night.  These  losses  are  usually 
distributed  over  a great  number  of  farms  and  do  not  affect  all 
the  crops ; hence  the  loss  is  not  so  keenly  felt  as  it  otherwise 
would  be. 

American  farmers  have  prospered  greatly  in  the  present  gene- 
ration ; farm  property  in  the  United  States  doubled  in  value  be- 
tween 1900  and  1910,  and  again  increased  nearly  as  much  in  value 

1For  suggestions  on  the  study  of  this  chapter,  see  pages  89  and  90. 

70 


AGRICULTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


71 


between  1910  and  1920.  Iowa,  our  most  distinctively  farming 
state,  has  the  highest  average  wealth  per  family  of  any  state  in 
the  Union. 

Extent  of  Farm  Land.  — No  other  nation  except  Russia  has 
so  large  an  area  of  agricultural  land  as  the  United  States,  and 
even  Russia  produces  much  less ; but  not  half  the  land  of  the 
United  States  is  devoted  to  farms  and  ranches1  and  only  one- 


Fig.  46.  — Note  the  high  proportion  of  land  in  crops  in  the  prairie  states  and  the 
eastern  part  of  the  great  plains  states.  ( U . S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


quarter  is  producing  crops.  A third  of  the  United  States  is  too 
dry  for  agriculture  without  irrigation  and  only  a small  fraction  of 
this  third  can  be  irrigated.  Swamps,  still  undrained,  cover  a 
total  area  equal  to  15  states  the  size  of  Massachusetts,  or  four 
per  cent  of  the  area  of  the  country ; much  of  this,  however,  will 
eventually  be  drained  and  converted  into  productive  land. 

Yet,  when  we  have  deducted  all  the  arid  lands,  swamp  lands, 
mountains,  and  other  kinds  of  waste  land,  and  all  our  forests, 

1 In  most  parts  of  the  United  States  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  the  term 
ranch  is  used  in  place  of  farm  even  though  it  may  be  only  a few  acres  in  size. 


72 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  47.  — Agricultural  provinces  of  the  United  States.  ( U . S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


AGRICULTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


73 


we  still  have  left  an  area  already  in  farms  equal  to  the  land  area 
of  the  British  Isles,  Germany,  France,  Italy,  and  Norway  com- 
bined. We  plant  more  land  to  corn  alone  than  the  entire  area 
of  the  British  Isles,  and  more  to  wheat  than  the  area  of  six 
Belgiums. 

Farming  Methods  in  the  United  States.  — In  France  the  aver- 
age size  of  farms  is  about  20  acres ; in  Japan  it  is  3 or  4 acres,  but 
in  the  United  States  it  is  140  acres.  In  India,  China,  and  Japan 
population  is  very  dense  and  farm  labor  is  cheap.  Consequently 


Fig.  48.  ■ — The  rich,  level  farm  lands  of  northern  Illinois,  among  the  most  pro- 
ductive and  valuable  of  the  country.  ( U . S.  Bur.  of  Soils.) 


most  of  the  work  in  these  countries  is  done  by  hand,  and  it  is 
thoroughly  done.  In  most  parts  of  Europe,  outside  of  Russia,  farm- 
ing is  more  carefully  done  than  in  the  United  States,  for  land 
there  is  very  valuable  and  must  be  made  to  produce  all  that  it 
possibly  can.  An  acre  of  wheat  in  Belgium  or  England  is  made 
to  yield  on  an  average  twice  as  much  as  in  this  country.  But 
in  the  United  States,  where  land  is  comparatively  cheap  and 
labor  is  expensive,  machinery  is  much  used ; in  fact,  nowhere 
else  is  farm  machinery  so  extensively  used  as  in  this  country. 


74 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Almost  every  process  in  farming  now  has  its  machine  by  means 
of  which  a large  amount  of  work  is  accomplished  in  a short  time. 
For  example,  in  1830  it  required  an  average  of  160  hours  of  work 
to  produce  50  bushels  of  wheat,  while  in  1 900,  with  modern  ma- 
chinery, it  required  only  7 hours.  Gang  plows,  seeders,  harvesters, 
and  steam  threshers  have  made  it  possible  for  five  men  to  per- 
form the  work  which  it  required  a hundred  to  perform  a gen- 
eration ago.  Under  this  system  the  yield  of  crops  per  acre  is 
smaller  than  that  in  western  Europe,  but  the  production  per 
man  is  much  greater. 

The  Principal  Farming  Regions  of  the  United  States.  — Farm- 
ing is  carried  on  in  every  part  of  the  United  States,  but  there 
are  two  great  sections  where  this  industry  outranks  every  other ; 
namely,  in  the  central  states  and  in  the  South  (Figs.  46,  47). 

The  North  Central  States.  — The  twelve  states  known  as  the 
north  central  group,  extending  from  Ohio  to  the  Dakotas,  in- 
clude only  one-fourth  of  our  land  area,  but  this  one-fourth  makes 
up  60  per  cent  of  the  total  value  of  our  farm  lands,  and  it  pro- 
duces nearly  one-half  of  the  crops  of  the  nation.  The  farms  of 
two  central  states,  Illinois  and  Iowa,  form  one-fifth  of  the  value 
of  all  the  farms  in  the  48  states.  The  north  central  area  in- 
cludes both  the  corn  belt  anti  the  wheat  belt  (P'igs.  49,  50).  Here 
in  twelve  states  we  raise  almost  three-fourths  of  the  grain  pro- 
duced in  the  United  States,  and  also  the  larger  part  of  our  meat 
animals. 

The  South,  too,  is  a great  farming  section,  producing  a third 
of  the  crops  of  the  country ; it  has  a long  growing  season,  ample 
rainfall,  mild  winters,  and  fertile  soil  (Fig.  51)  ; it  is  second  only 
to  the  central  states  in  the  total  production  of  crops ; grains  are 
of  secondary  importance,  and  neither  dairying  nor  the  fattening 
of  live  stock  is  largely  followed.  Cotton  is  king ; more  cotton 
is  grown  here  than  in  all  the  rest  of  the  world.  Corn  ranks  second 
and  is  grown  on  almost  every  farm ; but  the  warm,  moist  climate 
is  not  well  suited  to  wheat.  Land  is  less  expensive,  farming  is 
less  diversified,  and  machinery  is  less  used  than  in  the  north  cen- 
tral states.  The  large  plantations  which  were  once  common  in 


AGRICULTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


75 


the  South  have  been  steadily  giving  place  to  farms  of  moderate 
size. 

The  Principal  Crops 

Corn  is  the  leading  crop  grown  in  the  United  States ; our  corn 
fields  would  cover  the  total  area  of  the  British  Isles  and  Portu- 
gal. Nowhere  else  in  the  world  is  any  crop  of  such  magnitude 
raised  (3,000,000,000  bushels  in  a good  year) ; 70  per  cent  of 


Fig.  49.  — Note  the  east-west  extension  of  the  “corn  belt”  from  Nebraska 
to  Ohio.  The  United  States  raises  more  corn  than  all  the  rest  of  the  world. 
( U . S.  Dept,  of  Agr .) 


this  is  grown  in  the  north  central  states,  where  it  is  mainly  used 
for  fattening  hogs  and  cattle.  It  will  be  seen  from  Figs.  49  and 
59  how  closely  the  swine-  and  cattle-raising  states  correspond  to 
the  corn-growing  states.  We  export  little  corn ; in  fact  the 
greater  part  never  leaves  the  farm  where  it  is  grown,  except  as 
it  finally  reaches  the  market  in  the  form  of  meat. 

Hay  and  forage  are  the  leading  crops  in  the  northeastern  quar- 
ter of  the  United  States  and  form  our  second  crop  in  point  of 
value.  Forage  is  a general  name  applied  to  all  kinds  of  grasses  and 


76 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


clovers  which  are  used  as  a feed  for  farm  animals.  Few  people 
realize  that  the  hay  and  forage  crop  is  more  valuable  than  either 
cotton  or  wheat,  or  that  it  is  the  most  valuable  crop  in  one-third 
of  the  states  of  the  Union.  Alfalfa,  is  a relative  of  clover,  and  is 
being  raised  with  much  success  on  irrigated  lands  and  in  regions 
of  moderate  rainfall,  such  as  western  Kansas  and  Nebraska.  If 
necessary,  it  can  send  its  roots  ten  or  more  feet  into  the  ground 
in  search  of  water,  and  on  moist  land  it  yields  three  or  more  crops 


Fig.  50.  — Cotton-growing  region  of  the  United  States ; this  region  produces 
more  than  half  of  the  world’s  cotton.  (U . S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


a season.  It  is  a highly  nutritious  feed  for  farm  animals  and  is 
excellent  for  the  land  because  of  its  ability  to  add  nitrogen  to 
the  soil.  (See  page  65.) 

Cotton  is  the  great  crop  of  the  South  and  is  the  greatest  of  all 
our  exports.  The  plant  is  sensitive  to  cold  and  grows  only  where 
it  can  have  six  or  seven  months  without  frost  (Fig.  50).  It  de- 
mands a rich  soil,  a warm,  wet  spring,  abundant  sunshine,  and 
a dry  autumn  for  picking.  Only  one  large  area  in  the  world 
meets  all  the  rigid  requirements  of  the  cotton  crop,  and  that  is 
the  southeastern  quarter  of  the  United  States ; here  60  per  cent 
of  the  world’s  cotton  is  grown  (Fig.  50).  Standard  cotton  bales 
weigh  about  500  pounds,  and  an  acre  of  good  land  produces 


AGRICULTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


77 


from  a half  bale  to  a bale  or  even  more,  but  the  average  is 
about  one-third  of  a bale.  These  southern  cotton  fields  oc- 
cupy an  actual  area  equal  to  that  of  England.  Two-fifths  of 
the  crop  is  exported,  half  of  it  going  to  England  and  Germany 
in  times  of  peace.  England’s  greatest  industry,  cotton-manu- 
facturing, is  so  dependent  upon  i\.meriean  cotton  that  during 
our  Civil  War  raw  cotton  in  England  rose  to  over  a dollar  a pound, 


Fig.  51.  - — A southern  cotton  field  in  autumn.  ( U . S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


and  many  mills,  unable  to  get  cotton  at  any  price,  were  forced 
to  shut  down,  thus  throwing  thousands  of  people  out  of  work. 

Sea  Island  cotton  is  a superior  variety  with  a long,  silky  fiber; 
formerly  it  grew  near  the  coast  and  on  the  islands  off  South 
Carolina  and  Georgia.  At  present  most  of  it  is  grown  some  dis- 
tance inland  in  Georgia  and  northern  Florida.  In  irrigated  lands 
of  southern  California  and  Arizona,  a variety  of  long  staple  cot- 
ton similar  to  the  Egyptian  is  now  being  grown. 

Wheat  is  our  fourth  crop  in  point  of  value  (Fig.  52).  Two  gen- 
erations ago  western  New  York  was  a leading  producer,  and 
Rochesterwas  the  “ Flour  City  ” of  America.  But  year  by  year  the 


78 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


center  of  wheat-growing  has  moved  westward,  through  Ohio, 
Michigan,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Minnesota,  and  then  to  Kansas 
and  North  Dakota. 

Winter  wheat,  sown  in  the  fall,  is  the  leading  variety  in  all 
the  wheat-growing  states  except  the  Dakotas  and  Minnesota, 
where  spring  wheat  (sown  in  the  spring)  is  the  kind  chiefly  grown. 
The  highest-priced  flour  is  made  from  the  northern-grown,  hard, 
red  variety  of  spring  wheat.  In  America  wheat-growing  on  a 


Fig.  52.  — Regions  of  wheat  production.  ( U . S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


large  scale  has  always  been  on  new  lands ; this  accounts  for  the 
constant  westward  movement  of  the  center  of  wheat  cultivation. 

Wheat  grows  all  the  way  from  the  equator  to  the  polar  circle, 
but  it  reaches  its  highest  perfection  in  a cool  temperate  climate. 
In  America  it  is  the  most  favored  crop  for  big  farms  on  level  plains 
where  machinery  can  be  employed.  In  the  Red  River  Valley  of 
the  Dakotas  and  Minnesota,  and  in  Washington,  farms  (ranches) 
of  1000  acres,  or  larger,  are  not  uncommon,  and  in  the  lat- 
ter state  machines  which  cut,  thresh,  and  bag  the  grain  at  one 
operation  are  used  (Fig.  53).  The  average  yield  in  the  United  States 


AGRICULTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


79 


is  only  about  15  bushels  per  acre,  which  is  much  lower  than  that 
in  western  Europe,  but  is  higher  than  that  in  Russia,  Argentina, 
and  Australia. 

Prior  to  1900,  and  again  during  the  great  World  War,  the 
United  States  was  a large  exporter  of  wheat,  but  our  increasing  pop- 
ulation will  continue  to  demand  more  and  more  at  home,  and 
the  time  is  not  far  off  when  we  shall  become  an  importer  of  this 


Fig.  53.  — Harvesting  wheat  in  Oregon  with  a combined  harvester  and  thrasher. 


grain.  The  wheat  crop  of  1915  was  the  largest  ever  harvested 
and  reached  the  enormous  total  of  one  billion,  or  1000  million 
bushels,  the  greatest  quantity  ever  produced  by  any  nation.  Eu- 
rope, as  a whole,  produces  more  wheat  than  North  America  and 
South  America  combined. 

Potatoes  are  an  important  food  crop,  raised  mainly  in  the 
northern  states  from  Maine  to  Minnesota.  They  grow  best  in 
sandy  loam.  They  require  a great  deal  of  work  on  the  part  of 


80 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


the  farmer,  but  a good  crop  yields  upwards  of  a hundred  dollars 
an  acre  and  may  yield  four  times  this  amount.  Contrast  this 
with  wheat,  whose  yield  in  this  country  is  usually  about  815  an 
acre,  though  much  more  under  war  prices.  Strangely  enough, 
our  most  noted  potato-growing  region  is  far  from  the  great  city 
markets,  in  northeastern  Maine.  Figure  54  shows  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  potato  crop. 

Oats  form  the  fifth  largest  crop  in  the  United  States.  Their 


Fig.  54.  — Distribution  of  potato-growing  in  the  United  States.  ( XJ . S.  Dept,  of 

Agr.) 


principal  use  is  as  feed  for  horses  and  other  farm  animals.  They 
are  hardy  and  grow  best  in  a cool  climate  such  as  that  of  the 
northern  United  States  and  southern  Canada.  It  is  worthy  of  note 
that  three  out  of  five  leading  farm  crops  (corn,  hay,  and  oats) 
are  raised  not  for  man’s  direct  use,  but  chiefly  as  a food  for  farm 
animals. 

Rice,  one  of  the  greatest  cereal  foods,  is  not  largely  grown 
in  America.  In  the  Orient  it  is  the  most  important  of  all  foods, 
and  a third  of  the  people  of  the  earth  are  said  to  eat  it  every 


AGRICULTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


81 


day.  Formerly  our  principal  rice  fields  were  in  South  Carolina 
and  Georgia,  where  the  planters  depended  for  the  irrigation  of 
the  crop  upon  the  overflow  of  streams ; now  the  rice  is  mostly 
grown  on  slightly  elevated  lands  in  Texas,  Louisiana,  Arkansas, 
and  California,  where  artificial  irrigation  is  practiced,  and  where 
the  land  is  firm  enough  to  allow  the  use  of  harvesting  machinery 
(Fig.  55). 

Sugar  Cane  and  Sugar  Beets.  — The  former  is  a tropical  or 


Fig.  55.  — The  Dakotas  produce  most  of  the  flax;  New  York  and  Pennsylvania 
most  of  the  buckwheat,  and  Texas,  California,  and  Louisiana  most  of  the 
rice.  California’s  production  rose  rapidly  between  1910  and  1920,  but  is  not  indi- 
cated on  this  map.  (U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 

subtropical  product.  Cuba,  Hawaii,  Porto  Rico,  the  Philippines, 
and  Louisiana  supply  the  larger  part  of  our  cane  sugar.  It  can 
be  most  profitably  grown  on  large  plantations,  covering  hundreds 
or  thousands  of  acres,  and  the  industry  is  therefore  one  requiring 
capital.  The  cane  grows  to  a height  of  10  or  12  feet,  is  cut,  and  is 
taken  to  the  mill  usually  on  the  plantation,  where  it  is  run  through 
rollers  to  press  out  the  sweet  juice,  from  which  the  sugar  is  made 
by  boiling.  In  years  just  prior  to  the  World  War  more  sugar  was 


82 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


made  from  beets  than  from  cane.  Sugar  beets  grow  in  a cool 
climate,  and  Colorado,  California,  Utah,  and  Michigan  are  our 
largest  producers,  though  far  below  central  European  countries. 

Barley  and  rye  are  cereals  produced  in  much  smaller  quantities 
than  corn,  wheat,  or  oats. 

Tobacco,  like  Indian  corn,  was  unknown  to  Europeans  until 
the  discovery  of  America.  Since  early  colonial  times  tobacco 
has  been  an  important  crop  in  certain  sections  of  the  country, 


Fig.  56.  — A strawberry  field  on  the  sandy  soil  of  the  coastal  plain  of  North 
Carolina;  note  the  levelness  of  the  plain.  ( U . S.  Bur.  of  Soils.) 


notably  in  Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  and  later  in  Kentucky; 
it  is  also  a crop  of  importance  in  several  northern  states. 

Fruits.  — Scarcely  any  crop  is  so  sensitive  to  climate  as  are 
fruits.  The  more  hardy  ones,  like  apples,  plums,  pears,  and  cher- 
ries, will  ripen  in  the  northern  states,  but  the  citrus  fruits,  such 
as  oranges  and  lemons,  are  subtropical  in  their  habits.  Many 
fruits,  such  as  strawberries,  peaches,  plums,  and  pears,  must 
be  marketed  promptly  after  picking  and  so  can  be  profitably 
grown  only  in  populous  regions,  or  where  transportation  facil- 
ities are  especially  good. 


AGRICULTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


83 


The  Great  Lakes  exert  an  important  influence  upon  fruit-grow- 
ing in  their  neighborhood,  especially  in  the  region  immediately 
east  of  them  (Fig.  205).  New  York  and  Michigan  are,  next  to 
California,  the  leading  states  in  the  production  of  fruit.  Large 
bodies  of  water  warm  up  slowly  in  spring,  and,  by  keeping  the 
surrounding  air  cool,  prevent  the  early  opening  of  the  buds 
on  the  fruit  trees,  which  are  thus  saved  from  injury  by  late  frosts. 


Fig.  57.  — Orchards  of  pears  and  apples  in  the  Rogue  River  Valley  of  Oregon. 

(JJ . S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


Apples  are  the  most  important  of  the  orchard  fruits.  In  their 
production  New  York  was  long  the  leading  state,  but  Wash- 
ington now  leads.  California  is  foremost  in  the  production 
of  nearly  all  other  fruits,  including  peaches,  pears,  plums,  prunes, 
cherries,  apricots,  grapes,  oranges,  lemons,  figs,  and  olives.  This 
single  state  grows  as  much  fruit  as  the  three  states  next  in  rank 
(New  York,  Michigan,  and  Pennsylvania).  The  splendid  or- 
chards of  California,  Washington,  Oregon  (Fig.  57),  and  other  far- 


84 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


western  states  are  mostly  on  irrigated  lands,  and  the  brilliant  sun- 
shine of  the  dry  summers  gives  a wonderful  richness  of  color 
to  the  fruit  (Fig.  58). 

The  region  adjacent  to  the  southeastern  end  of  Lake  Erie  is  the 
principal  grape  belt  outside  of  California.  Florida  grows  only  a 
third  as  many  oranges  as  California,  but  supplies  the  greater  part 
of  the  grapefruit,  pineapples,  and  tangerines  raised  in  this  country. 
The  growing  of  figs  and  olives  and  even  dates  in  Arizona  and  Cali- 
fornia is  increasing,  and  a few  bananas  are  raised  in  Florida.  Im- 
portant as  fruits  are,  they  form  only  about  four  per  cent  of  the 
value  of  the  crops  of  the  United  States. 

Stock-Raising  and  Dairying 

Stock-raising.  — The  raising  of  crops  is  only  one  part  of  the 
farmer’s  work.  He  usually  keeps  several  horses ; dairy  cows  are 
kept  for  milk,  and  thousands  of  farms  derive  their  chief  income 
from  this  source.  In  the  corn  belt  especially  (Fig.  59),  but  in 
other  parts  of  the  country  also,  the  fattening  of  beef  cattle  and 
hogs  is  a highly  profitable  branch  of  farming.  In  certain  other 
sections,  sheep-raising  is  common  (Fig.  60),  and  nearly  every 
farm  has  poultry.  There  are,  in  round  numbers,  200  million 
horses,  cattle,  swine,  and  sheep  in  the  United  States,  or  nearly 
twice  as  many  as  there  are  people. 

The  maps  on  page  86  show  that  certain  sections  of  the  United 
States  specialize  more  or  less  in  the  raising  of  certain  farm  animals. 

Cattle. — Large  numbers  of  cattle  still  graze  on  government 
land  in  the  semiarid  West.  Sheep  (Fig.  61)  are  tended  by  shep- 
herds, but  the  cattle  belonging  to  different  men  are  “ branded  ” 
with  the  marks  of  their  respective  owners  and  then  are  allowed 
to  graze  at  will.  In  the  fall,  a “ round-up  ” is  held  and  the  dif- 
ferent owners  and  their  “ cowboys  ” sort  out  their  own  cattle. 
Most  of  those  that  are  ready  to  sell  are  shipped  east ; many  of 
them  are  bought  by  farmers  in  the  corn  belt,  where  they  are  fat- 
tened and  later  are  sold  to  the  slaughterhouses  of  Chicago,  Kan- 
sas City,  Omaha,  and  other  meat-packing  centers.  A great  many 


AGRICULTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


85 


Fig.  58.  — Drying  fruit  in  the  bright  sunshine  of  southern  California. 


beef  cattle  are  reared  entirely  in  the  corn  belt,  some  being 
raised  on  nearly  every  farm.  The  United  States  has  been  a large 
exporter  of  meat,  but  our  own  population  is  becoming  so  large 
that  we  need  most  of  it  at  home ; we  have  already  begun  to  im- 
port meat  from  Argentina. 

Sheep.  — The  open  range,  or  government  land,  of  the  West 
(Fig.  61)  is  important  grazing  land  for  sheep ; the  states  of  Wy- 
oming and  Montana  have  several  times  as  many  sheep  as  they 
have  people.  Some  of  the  central  states,  especially  Ohio,  also 
raise  sheep,  in  connection  with  general  farming ; yet  we  find  it 
necessary  to  import  about  half  of  the  wool  that  we  use. 

Swine.  — Pork  is  one  of  the  principal  meats  used  in  the 
United  States,  and  hog-raising  in  the  corn  belt  is  a vast  industry. 
There  are  counties  in  Iowa  which  average  50  hogs  to  the  farm, 
while  some  farms  have  several  times  that  number  ; the  entire  state 


86 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  59.  — Distribution  of  swine  in  the  United  States.  (f7.  S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


Fig.  60.  — Distribution  of  sheep  in  the  United  States.  Each  dot  represents 
5000  head.  [U . S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


AGRICULTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


87 


lias  from  8 to  10  million.  Hogs  are  also  raised  in  large  numbers 
in  the  South,  where  corn  is  the  leading  cereal.  Our  export  of 
pork  products-  hams,  bacon,  lard,  etc.  has  been  very  large 
in  the  past  but  will  decline  on  account  of  the  growing  needs  of  our 
own  population. 

Dairying,  or  dairy  farming,  is  the  leading  type  of  agricul- 
ture in  some  states  and  in  many  localities.  Cities  must  get  their 
milk  from  the  farms  and  must  get  it  fresh  daily  ; therefore,  it  must 


Fig.  61.  — On  the  semiarid  lands  of  the  West,  millions  of  sheep  are  raised. 
{Physiography  Lab.  Cornell  Univ.) 


be  produced  at  no  very  great  distance.  By  means  of  refrigera- 
tor cars  and  special  milk  trains,  New  York  and  Boston  are  ob- 
taining milk  from  distances  of  several  hundred  miles  (Fig.  62). 

The  making  of  butter  and  cheese  is  a large  industry.  The  Amer- 
ican people  use  upwards  of  5 million  pounds  of  butter  every 
day.  The  butter  made  in  three  states  — Iowa,  Minnesota,  and 
Wisconsin  — exceeds  in  value  the  gold  output  of  all  North  America. 
The  cheese  produced  yearly  in  Wisconsin  is  worth  more  than 
the  gold  mined  in  the  United  States  ; New  York  and  Wisconsin  are 
close  competitors  for  first  place  in  the  production  of  milk.  Be- 
cause of  the  warmer  climate  and  fewer  cities  in  the  South,  dairy 


88 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


farming  is  followed  less  there  than  in  the  central  and  eastern 
states. 


Fig.  62.  — Dairying  regions  of  the  United  States.  A large  part  of  the  milk  pro- 
duced in  the  eastern  states  is  consumed  in  the  near-by  cities.  The  greater  part 
of  that  produced  in  the  north  central  states  is  made  into  butter,  cheese,  and 
condensed  milk.  ( U . S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


Condensed  Summary  of  Important  Facts  about 
Agriculture  in  the  United  States 

1.  Agriculture  employs  more  people,  produces  more  wealth, 
and  is  more  closely  connected  with  the  general  well-being  of  our 
people  than  any  other  industry. 

2.  Nearly  one-third  of  our  entire  population  live  on  farms. 
General  business  prosperity  is  closely  related  to  the  prosperity 
of  the  farm. 

3.  Only  one-half  of  the  area  of  the  United  States  is  divided  into 
farms,  and  about  one-quarter  is  improved  farm  land ; yet  the 
area  of  our  farm  land  equals  the  combined  area  of  the  British 


AGRICULTURE  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


89 


Isles,  Germany,  France,  Italy,  and  Norway.  (Nearly  one-half 
of  the  farm  land  is  not  improved.) 

4.  The  north  central  states  form  our  greatest  farming  section. 
They  comprise  only  one-fourth  of  the  area,  but  they  raise  nearly 
half  of  our  crops  and  over  half  of  our  live  stock.  The  southern 
states  produce  over  one-third  (35%)  of  our  crops.  Illinois  and 
Iowa  are  outstanding  agricultural  states.  Nearly  all  of  their  area 
is  improved  farm  land,  the  value  of  which  is  one-fifth  of  the  total 
value  of  all  the  farm  land  ifi  the  48  states. 

5.  Our  five  leading  crops  in  order  of  value  are  (1)  corn,  (2)  hay, 
(3)  cotton,  (4)  wheat,  (5)  oats.  Cereals  form  about  half  of  the 
value  of  all  crops.  The  importance  of  meat  production  in  the 
United  States  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  of  the  five  leading  crops, 
three,  — corn,  hay,  and  oats,  — are  raised  almost  wholly  for 
feeding  animals ; only  one-fourth  of  our  farm  crops  are  raised 
directly  for  man’s  food. 

6.  Dairying  and  mixed  farming  prevail  in  the  older  eastern 
states,  cotton-growing  in  the  South,  cereal-growing  and  meat- 
production  in  the  Middle  West,  grazing  of  sheep  and  cattle  in  the 
mountain  states,  and  the  growing  of  fruit  and  grain  in  the  Pacific 
states.  Dairy  farming  is  most  largely  carried  on  in  the  states 
near  the  Great  Lakes. 

7.  Apples  are  our  most  valuable  fruit,  and  Washington  is  the 
leading  producer.  Peaches  are  second,  grapes  third,  and  oranges 
fourth,  with  California  the  leader  in  all  three.  California  pro- 
duces fruit  as  great  in  value  as  the  combined  value  of  the  fruit 
crops  of  New  York,  Michigan,  and  Pennsylvania,  the  three  lead- 
ing fruit-growing  states  of  the  East. 

8.  Irrigation  is  being  employed  in  the  western  states  on  about 
one-fifty-fifth  of  the  total  farm  land  of  the  country. 

EXERCISE  VIII 

Suggestion.  — This  chapter  may  appropriately  be  studied  and  discussed 
by  the  topical  method.  The  following  topics  are  suggested;  pupils  should 
prepare  themselves  to  give  brief  talks  on  each  of  these. 

Discuss:  1.  The  connection  between  the  prosperity  of  the  farms  and  the 
prosperity  of  the  country  as  a whole 


90 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


2.  The  importance  of  weather  to  the  farmer 

3.  The  extent  of  our  farm  land 

4.  Size  of  farms  and  the  farming  methods  in  the  United  States 

5.  Agriculture  in  the  central  states 

6.  Agriculture  in  the  South 

7.  The  leading  crops  of  the  United  States  and  where  grown 

8.  The  importance  of  cotton 

9.  Wheat-growing  in  the  United  States  and  Europe 

10.  Sources  of  our  sugar  supply 

11.  Fruit-growing  in  the  United  States 

12.  Stock-raising  and  dairying  in  the  United  States 

13.  Reasons  for  the  great  development  of  agriculture  in  the  United 
States 


CHAPTER  VI 


THE  WORK  AND  SERVICE  OF  UNDERGROUND  WATER 

What  Becomes  of  the  RainWater?  — Think  of  an  irregular 
land  surface  upon  which  rain  has  been  falling.  Soon  after  the 
rain  ceased  most  of  the  water  disappeared. 

1.  Some  of  it  ran  down  the  slopes,  formed  rivulets,  and 
joined  a stream  on  its  way  to  the  sea ; this  is  termed  the  run-off. 

2.  Some  of  it  soaked  into  the  ground. 

3.  Some  of  it  dried  up,  that  is,  was  evaporated  by  the  sun 
and  wind. 

Some  of  the  run-off  and  some  of  the  water  that  soaked  into 
the  soil  was  also  evaporated  later.  Therefore,  in  the  course  of 
time,  all  the  water  that  fell  in  this  rain  went  (a)  to  the  sea,  or 
( b ) into  the  ground,  or  (c)  into  the  air.  Every  drop  had  gone  through 
these  experiences  many  times  before,  for  the  water  which  to-day 
falls  upon  the  earth  has  fallen  in  countless  other  rains  during  past 
ages ; again  and  again  it  has  run  to  the  sea,  has  been  evaporated, 
and  has  been  carried  over  the  land  by  the  wind  to  fall  again  as  rain. 

Depth  and  Amount  of  Ground  Water.  — The  rain  water  sinks 
easily  into  the  porous  soil  and  subsoil  and  also  into  the  under- 
lying rocks ; but  it  is  believed  that  at  a depth  of  about  twenty 
miles  the  great  weight  of  the  overlying  rocks  permits  no  open 
spaces  in  which  the  ground  water  may  collect.  It  has  been  es- 
timated that  the  amount  of  water  in  the  ground  is  sufficient  to 
make  a layer  1000  feet  deep  over  all  the  land  surface  of  the  earth. 
Even  if  this  is  true,  this  would  be  only  a small  amount  of  water  in 
proportion  to  that  in  the  oceans. 

The  Ground  Water  Surface  or  “Water  Table.”  — In  regions 
of  heavy  rainfall  the  ground  may  be  saturated  nearly  or  quite 
up  to  the  surface,  but  in  dry  regions  wells  must  reach  down  scores 

91 


92 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


or  hundreds  of  feet  to  find  water.  If  several  wells  were  drilled 
in  a level  plain,  all  at  about  equal  distances  from  stream  courses, 
they  would  probably  strike  water  at  about  the  same  depth,  and 
water  would  rise  in  all  of  the  wells  to  about  the  same  level.  This 
level  would  be  the  water  table  in  that  region.  That  is,  the  pores 
and  crevices  of  the  rock  or  soil  are  filled  with  water  up  to  that 
level.  In  a prolonged  drought  the  water  table  gradually  sinks, 
and  during  a prolonged  rain  it  rises.  In  a dry  season  the  shallow 
wells  often  become  dry  while  the  deep  wells  contain  plenty  of 
water ; this  is  because  the  water  table  has  sunk  below  the  bottoms 


Fig.  63.  — Diagram  showing  the  relation  of  the  water  table  to  wells,  to  a swamp, 

and  to  a spring. 


of  the  shallow  wells  but  not  below  the  bottoms  of  the  deep  ones 
(Fig.  63). 

The  water  table  or  water  surface  may  be  defined  as  the  sur- 
face below  which  the  ground  is  saturated  with  water;  in  a per- 
fectly flat  plain  it  may  be  practically  level ; under  hills  it  domes 
upward  and  under  depressions  it  bends  downward,  but  its  sur- 
face is  more  even  than  the  surface  of  the  ground  above  (Fig.  63). 
In  arid  regions  the  conditions  are  somewhat  different. 

Movement  of  the  Ground  Water.  — On  account  of  the  constant 
pull  of  gravity  the  water  tends  to  seep  downward  into  the  earth 
as  far  as  it  can,  and  also  to  move  sideward  from  higher  toward 
lower  land  (Fig.  67).  In  this  movement  some  of  the  water  creeps 
out  of  the  hillsides  and  gets  into  the  streams.  If,  in  its  down- 
ward movement  through  porous  soil  or  rocks,  the  water  reaches 
a layer  of  clay  or  shale  or  some  other  substance  into  which  it  can- 
not soak,  it  slowly  creeps  along  on  top  of  this  impervious  layer 


WORK  AND  SERVICE  OF  UNDERGROUND  WATER  93 


in  the  direction  of  its  slope,  and  may  somewhere  come  to  the  sur- 
face as  a spring  (Fig.  65).  Some  of  it  oozes  out  in  low  places, 
forming  swamps ; some  finds  its  way  into  surface  streams,  and 
some  may  even  continue  on  its  underground  journey  until  it 
comes  to  the  sea. 

Upward  Movement.  — When  the  surface  of  the  ground  be- 


Fig.  64.  — Cracks  in  limestone  filled  with  calcite  deposited  by  underground  water. 

(17.  S.  Geol.  Sur.) 

comes  somewhat  dry,  it  acts  like  an  ink  blotter  or  sponge  and 
absorbs  moisture  from  the  wet  layer  next  below,  causing  an  up- 
ward movement  of  the  ground  water.  This  is  of  great  impor- 
tance to  growing  plants  and  to  crops  in  dry  weather,  for  they 
would  die  for  want  of  moisture  if  they  were  not  thus  nourished. 
Some  plants,  such  as  alfalfa  and  clover,  have  the  ability  to 
send  their  roots  far  down  into  the  ground  in  search  of  water. 


94 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  65.  — Diagram  showing  how  an  im- 
pervious layer  of  earth  or  rock  may 
cause  a spring  on  a hillside. 


Certain  plants  are  called  drought-resisting  because  they  can 
live  in  times  of  prolonged  dry  weather  when  most  plants  perish. 
Drought-resisting  crops  are  being  grown  more  and  more  in  the 
semiarid  lands  of  the  West. 

How  Upward-moving  Ground  Water  Benefits  or  Injures  the 
Soil.  — In  clear  weather  the  sun  and  wind  are  constantly  evap- 
orating moisture  from  the  soil.  In  dry  climates  the  evapora- 
tion is  excessive,  and  the  ground 
water,  ever  moving  upward  and 
evaporating,  slowly  deposits  in 
the  top  soil  the  dissolved  solids 
which  it  contained.  Sometimes 
these  solids,  or  salts,  add  fertility 
to  the  soil.  In  other  cases  they 
may  belong  to  the  class  of  salts  called  alkalis,  which  are  injuri- 
ous and  even  destructive  to  vegetation ; these  soon  ruin  the 
soil.  This  explains  why  some  desert  soils  are  extremely  pro- 
ductive when  irrigated,  while  others  would  be  of  little  or  no  use 
if  they  were  irrigated.  In  the  arid  states  like  Nevada  and  Utah 
both  of  these  types  of  soil  occur. 

Wells.  — If  a well  is  drilled  or  dug  deep  enough  into  the  earth, 
it  will  penetrate  ground  water  and  be  constantly  supplied.  Many 
deep  wells  that  supply  cities  are  pumped  almost  constantly  day 
and  night  and  yet  always  contain  water. 

Artesian  Wells.  — In  many  places  artesian  wrells  have  been 
drilled  to  depths  of  hundreds  and  even  thousands  of  feet.1  In  south- 
ern New  Jersey,  Delaware,  and  Maryland,  in  southern  Wisconsin  and 
northern  Illinois,  in  the  Dakotas,  and  in  several  other  states, 
artesian  wells  are  numerous  and  their  pure,  clear  water  is  a boon 
to  the  people  (Fig.  66).  In  one  region  in  South  Dakota  there 
are  over  1000  flowing  wells,  some  of  them  yielding  from  1000  to 
2000  gallons  a minute.  Because  of  their  porosity,  sandstones 
are  the  principal  sources  of  artesian  water. 


1 Originally  the  term  “ artesian  ” was  applied  only  to  flowing  wells,  but  it  is  now 
applied  also  to  very  deep,  drilled  wells,  even  though  the  water  has  to  be  pumped 
from  them. 


WORK  AND  SERVICE  OF  UNDERGROUND  WATER  95 


Economic  Value  of 
Wells.  — Pure  drink- 
ing water,  like  pure 
air  and  food,  is  abso- 
lutely essential. 

Streams  and  lakes  are 
often  impure,  partic- 
ularly in  thickly  set- 
tled regions,  for  all 
kinds  of  impurities  are 
washed  into  them. 

The  water  of  shallow 
wells  and  open  wells 
often  contains  disease 
germs,  but  water 
which  has  filtered  a 
long  distance  through 
the  subsoil  and  por- 
ous rocks  is  thereby 
freed  from  harmful 
impurities  (Fig.  67). 

Therefore,  deep,  Fig.  66.  — A flowing  artesian  well.  (U.  S.Geol.  Sur.) 

drilled  wells  are  to  be 

preferred  as  sources  of  drinking  water.  The  wells  of  a 
state  have  a value  reaching  into  millions  of  dollars.  While 
many  cities  obtain  their  water  from  lakes  and  rivers,  it  is  esti- 
mated that  a majority  of  the  people  of  the  United  States  de- 
pend for  drinking  water  directly  upon  underground  supplies. 
In  villages  and  on  farms  nearly  every  family  has  a well,  and  a 
farm  or  village  home  without  a well  or  spring  may  be  valued  at 
several  hundred  dollars  less  than  it  would  be  if  it  had  good  drink- 
ing water.  In  prosperous  farming  regions  almost  every  farm 
has  a windmill  or  gasoline  engine  used  to  pump  well  water  for 
the  family  and  the  stock. 

Irrigation  from  Wells.  — There  are  deep  artesian  wells  in  the 
oases  of  the  Sahara  used  in  part  for  irrigation.  Half  the  irriga- 


96 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


tion  of  southern  California  is  said  to  be  done  witli  underground 
water.  In  India,  where  a great  deal  of  the  cultivated  land  is  irri- 
gated, nearly  as  much  of  the  water  is  supplied  by  wells  as  by  canals. 


Fig.  67.  — Two  conditions  under  which  flowing  wells  may  occur.  Note  the  move- 
ment of  the  ground  water  in  the  cracks  of  the  rock  as  indicated  by  the  small 
arrows.  ( U . S.  Water  Supply  Paper  374.) 


Fig.  68.  — Mouth  of  Mountain  Geyser,  Yellowstone  National  Park.  The  in- 
crustations around  the  opening  are  mineral  deposits  formed  by  the  hot 
waters.  (U.  S.  Geol.  Sur .) 


WORK  AND  SERVICE  OF  UNDERGROUND  WATER  97 


Mineral  Waters.  — As  ground  water  seeps  through  the  soil 
and  rocks,  it  dissolves  small  amounts  of  mineral  matter.  In 
limestone  regions,  the  water  is  “ hard,”  due  to  the  dissolved  lime 
which  it  contains.  Some  waters  contain  enough  iron  to  make 
it  noticeable  to  the  taste.  Sulphur  waters  have  the  disagreeable 
odor  of  bad  eggs.  In  somewhat  rare  cases  the  waters  of  springs 
contain  quite  a quantity  of  dissolved  salts  which  have  medici- 


Fig.  69.  — Terraces  formed  by  the  mineral  deposits  from  the  Mammoth  Hot 
Springs  in  Yellowstone  Park.  ( U . S.  Geol.  Sur.) 

nal  value ; such  springs  lead  to  the  establishment  of  sanitariums, 
hospitals,  and  watering  places,  as,  for  example,  at  Saratoga  Springs, 
New  York.  Large  quantities  of  real  and  so-called  mineral  waters 
are  bottled  and  sold,  — seven  or  eight  million  dollars’  worth  in  the 
United  States  yearly. 

Hot  Springs.  — Springs  of  hot  water  occasionally  occur,  as 
in  Virginia,  Arkansas,  and  notably  in  the  Yellowstone  National 
Park  (Fig.  69).  Such  waters  are  believed  to  rise  from  consider- 


98 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  70.  — Beehive  group  of  geysers  near  Fire  Hole  River,  Yellowstone  Park.  (U.  S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


WORK  AND  SERVICE  OF  UNDERGROUND  WATER  99 


able  depths  — thousands  of  feet  — where  they  have  been  in  con- 
tact with  heated  rocks,  due  possibly  to  intrusions  of  lava.  In 
some  instances  beautiful  formations  are  built  around  the  mouths 
of  the  springs  as  the  water  cools  and  deposits  its  dissolved  min- 
eral matter  (Fig.  6S).  Few  sights  in  nature  are  more  beautiful 


Fig.  71.  — Geyser  in  eruption,  Yellowstone  Park.  ( U . S.  Geol.  Sur.) 

than  the  terraces  formed  by  the  hot  springs  of  Yellowstone  Park 
(Fig.  69). 

Geysers.  — In  New  Zealand,  Iceland,  and  Yellowstone  Park 
there  are  hot  springs  of  an  unusual  type,  known  as  geysers. 
Old  Faithful  (in  Yellowstone  Park)  is  an  excellent  example. 
About  every  55  minutes,  the  w'ater  in  the  crater  at  the  mouth  of 
the  geyser  tube  begins  to  boil  violently,  deep  rumbling  sounds 
are  heard  in  the  earth  around,  and  shortly  a huge  fountain  of  hot 
water  and  steam  is  hurled  high  into  the  air ; this  continues  for 
several  minutes,  then  subsides.  The  performance  is  repeated 


100 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


with  clocklike  regularity  hour  after  hour.  There  are  about 
100  geysers  in  this  park,  some  spouting  every  few  minutes, 
some  at  irregular  intervals  of  hours  or  days.  Besides  the  gey- 
sers there  are  some  3000  hot  springs  in  the  park.  As  you  walk 
about  in  the  geyser  basins  you  hear  the 
rumbling  of  boiling  waters  under  you,  and 
see  jets  of  steam  issuing  from  crevices  all 
around  (Fig.  70). 

Cause  of  Geysers.  — It  is  believed  that 
the  heat  is  supplied  by  beds  of  lava  which 
are  gradually  cooling  below  the  surface  of 
the  earth.  In  favorable  places  irregular, 
tubelike  openings  exist  in  the  rocks,  down 
which  the  surface  waters  work  their  way 
and  reach  the  heated  rocks  below.  This 
column  of  water,  possibly  extending  down- 
ward thousands  of  feet,  forms  a great 
weight  upon  the  water  near  the  bottom  of 
the  tube  and  the  pressure  keeps  it  from 
boiling  until  an  extremely  high  temperature 
is  reached.  Hotter  and  hotter  becomes 
the  water  near  the  bottom  of  the  tube,  which 
is  held  down  by  the  weight  of  the  water 
above.  Finally  it  becomes  so  hot  that  it 
can  no  longer  be  confined  and  it  bursts 
into  steam  with  explosive  violence  and 
drives  the  water  in  the  tube  up  and  out  in 
the  form  of  a geyser  (Fig.  71).  Part  of  the  same  water  flows  back 
into  the  tube  and  the  process  is  repeated  again  and  again. 

The  Work  of  Ground  Water  in  Forming  Mineral  Veins  and 
Ore  Bodies.  — On  page  43  is  a statement  explaining  the  way 
in  which  gold-bearing  veins  and  others  of  similar  origin  are  formed  ; 
there  is  quite  general  agreement  that  the  agents  which  accom- 
plish the  work  are  circulating  waters  and  vapors  in  the  earth  which, 
in  their  movement  through  the  rocks,  collect  particles  of  metal 
and  deposit  them  later  in  the  fissures  and  openings  of  the 


Fig.  72.  — A fissure  in 
the  rocks  (along  a 
fault  plane)  being 
filled  with  mineral 
matter  by  upward- 
moving  hot  water. 
The  fissure,  when 
filled,  becomes  a min- 
eral vein. 


WORK  AND  SERVICE  OF  UNDERGROUND  WATER  101 


rocks  (Fig.  72).  Were  it  not  for  the  work  of  ground  water  in 
thus  bringing  together  the  minute  grains  of  metal,  widely  scattered 
through  the  rocks,  and  concentrating  enough  metal  in  one 
place  to  make  it  profitable  to  mine,  man  would  have  few  if  any 


Fig.  73.  — Diagram  showing  how  surface  waters  work  their  way  downward  in 
limestone  rocks  and  produce  caves  by  solution  and  erosion. 


metals  to  use,  and  without  the  metals  he  would  probably  still  be  a 
savage.  The  formation  of  iron  ore  beds  is  discussed  on  page  37. 

How  the  Ground  Water  Helps  to  Make  and  Destroy  the  Rocks. 
It  is  evident  from  preceding  explanations  that  (1)  both  hot  and 
cold  waters  are  moving  through  the  rocks,  upward,  downward, 
and  sideward ; and  (2)  that  these  waters  dissolve  mineral  matter 
in  some  places  and  deposit  it  in  others.  By  the  dissolving  of  parts 
of  the  rocks  they  are  weakened  and  their  destruction  is  hastened 
(Fig.  73).  Where  the  ground  water  is  depositing  mineral  mat- 
ter, pores,  cracks,  and  fissures  are  being  filled,  and  the  rock  is 
thus  more  firmly  cemented  together. 

Petrifaction.  — In  Arizona,  in  Yellowstone  Park,  and  in  some 
other  regions  are  found  petrified  trees  which  have  been  or 
still  are  encased  in  the  rocks  (Fig.  74).  So  perfect  is  the  repro- 
duction that  there  is  no  doubt  they  were  once  living  trees.  It 
is  believed  that  the  logs  were  long  ago  buried  in  sediments  or  vol- 
canic material,  and  that  during  past  ages  underground  waters, 
charged  with  cpiartz,  slowly  carried  away  the  wood  and,  particle 
by  particle,  replaced  it  with  mineral  matter  until  all  the  wood 
had  been  removed  and  in  its  place  quartz  in  many  beautiful  col- 


102 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


ors  had  been  deposited ; but  the  exact  form  and  structure  of  the 
log  is  preserved  with  all  of  its  rings,  bark,  knots,  etc.  The  Petri- 
fied Forests  of  Arizona  are  among  the  interesting  phenomena  of 


Pig.  74.  ■ — Petrified  logs  near  Adamana,  Arizona.  (U.  S.  Geol.  Sur-) 


the  Southwest.  Not  only  wood  but  shells,  corals,  bones,  etc., 
may  be  replaced  by  the  process  of  petrifaction. 

The  Cause  of  Caves  and  Caverns.  — A traveler  in  parts  of 
central  Kentucky  rarely  sees  a surface  stream,  possibly  only  one 
in  20  miles  or  more,  but  saucerlike  depressions  called  sink-holes 
are  seen  everywhere.  Most  of  the  rainfall  of  such  a region  does 
not  run  off,  but  disappears  into  the  ground,  usually  by  way  of 
the  sink-holes.  The  underlying  rocks  are  limestone  and  are  some- 
what soluble  in  the  water,  which  seeps  through  the  cracks,  fis- 
sures, and  other  openings,  gradually  enlarging  them  into  passages 


WORK  AND  SERVICE  OF  UNDERGROUND  WATER  103 


and  caverns.  It  is  estimated  that  the  combined  length  of  such 
caverns  and  passages  in  central  Kentucky  reaches  thousands 
of  miles  (Fig.  75). 

Noted  Caverns.  — The  most  famous  of  these  is  the  Mammoth 
Cave  in  Kentucky.  Here  the  underground  waters,  working  for 
ages,  have  carved  out  domes,  rotundas,  corridors,  and  every  va- 
riety of  passage,  reaching  on  and  on,  up  and  down,  in  and  out, 
almost  endlessly.  In  fact  many  of  the  passages  have  never  been 


Fig.  75.  — Map  of  a part  of  the  passages  in  Mammoth  Cave,  Kentucky.  ( After 

Hovey  and  Call.) 


explored.  The  Great  Dome  in  the  Mammoth  Cave  is  400  feet 
long,  150  feet  wide,  and  from  80  to  150  feet  high.  Only  in  the 
lowest  passages  do  the  underground  streams  flow,  finally  unit- 
ing and  emerging  as  the  Green  River.  Southern  Indiana  and 
western  Virginia  also  have  famous  caverns.  The  Luray  Caverns 
of  Virginia  are  famed  for  the  rare  delicacy  and  opalescent  beauty 
of  their  stalactites  and  stalagmites  (Fig.  76).  Stalactites,  like 
icicles,  hang  from  the  roof  of  the  cavern ; they  are  slowly  built 


104 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


downward  by  dripping  water  containing  dissolved  limestone 
or  calcite.  On  the  floor  of  the  cavern  the  dripping  matter  builds 
up  columns  of  similar  material  called  stalagmites.  Frequently 
the  two  unite  and  form  a pillar. 

Dependence  of  Man’s  Food  Supply  upon  the  Ground  Water.  — 
This  is  the  most  vitally  important  topic  discussed  in  this  chapter. 


Practically  all  vegetation 
lives  by  taking  water 
from  the  soil.  No  water 
— no  vegetation  ! A des- 
ert is  the  result.  The 
amount  of  water  required 
by  a plant  is  far  greater 
than  one  would  suppose. 
Through  the  roots  water 
is  taken  up,  and  through 
the  leaves  the  water  is 
transpired  or  given  out  to 
the  air.  It  is  said  that 
“ the  average  crop  plant 
uses  450  times  as  much 
water  as  the  weight  of  its 
own  dry  substance,  during 
its  growth.”  In  the  pro- 
duction of  a crop  of  wheat 
or  corn  something  like 
4000  or  5000  pounds  of  water  are  directly  and  indirectly  used  for 
each  pound  of  grain  produced.  A pound  of  meat  is  estimated 
to  represent  the  use  of  ten  times  as  much  water  as  a pound  of 
grain.  If  this  is  true,  then  a loaf  of  bread  and  a pound  of  steak 
have  together  required  the  services  of  22  tons  of  water.  It  is 
estimated  that  each  person  requires  the  services  of  6800  tons  of 
water  annually  to  produce  his  food.  In  the  great  irrigation  proj- 
ects in  the  West  the  government  engineers  plan  to  supply  the 
irrigated  lands  with  about  6800  tons  of  water  a year  for  each  in- 
habitant. 


Fig.  76.  — Stalactites  and  stalagmites  in  Mam- 
moth Cave,  Kentucky.  ( Field  Museum.) 


WORK  AND  SERVICE  OF  UNDERGROUND  WATER  105 


Thus  it  is  seen  that  the  number  of  people  who  can  be  fed  from 
a given  area  of  tillable  land  depends  upon  the  amount  of  avail- 
able ground  water.  Basing  his  calculations  upon  the  amount 
of  available  ground  water,  McGee  estimated  that  the  United 
States  is  capable  of  producing  food  for  1,000,000,000  people. 


Summary 

The  pores  and  open  spaces  in  the  soil  and  rocks  down  to  a depth 
of  about  20  miles  contain  a vast  amount  of  water  ; this  is  estimated 
at  enough  to  make  a layer  1000  feet  deep  over  the  entire  land 
surface  of  the  earth. 

In  regions  of  heavy  rainfall  the  ground  may  be  saturated  with 
water  almost  or  quite  up  to  the  surface,  while  in  dry  regions  the 
water  table  may  lie  scores  or  even  hundreds  of  feet  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground. 

Due  to  the  pull  of  gravity  this  water  seeps  through  soil  and 
rocks  toward  lower  levels.  In  dry  weather  it  moves  upward  into 
the  dry  top  layers  of  soil,  which  absorb  it  much  like  a blotter  or 
sponge,  and  it  evaporates  at  the  surface  or  is  taken  up  by  plants. 

Much  of  the  ground  water  works  its  way  out  in  the  form  of 
springs,  or  seeps  into  the  streams,  or  comes  to  the  surface  in  low 
places,  thus  producing  swamps. 

Wells  reach  down  into  the  zone  of  ground  water.  Artesian  wells 
are,  as  a rule,  deep,  and  if  drilled  in  relatively  low  ground,  may  be 
flowing  wells.  The  value  of  wTell  wrater  is  very  great ; it  is  esti- 
mated that  a majority  of  the  people  of  the  United  States  depend 
upon  w^ells  for  drinking  wrater.  In  some  parts  of  the  world,  India 
and  California  for  example,  irrigation  by  wrell  water  is  common. 

Some  ground  waters  contain  minerals  of  medicinal  value.  Hot 
springs  and  geysers  occur  wdiere  ground  wrater  comes  in  contact 
with  heated  rock  at  considerable  depths  in  the  earth.  Geysers 
are  rare;  the  principal  geyser  regions  being  in  Yellowstone  Park, 
Iceland,  and  New  Zealand.  The  first  named  has  about  one 
hundred. 


106 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Heated  ground  waters  and  vapors  moving  through  the  rocks 
collect  metallic  substances,  like  gold  or  silver,  and  afterward 
deposit  them  in  veins  and  ore  bodies. 

Sand,  clay,  and  gravel  are  cemented  into  rock  by  natural  ce- 
ments carried  by  ground  water.  In  other  places,  the  cementing 
material  may  be  dissolved  away  and  the  rock  caused  to  crumble. 

Under  special  conditions,  the  wood  of  buried  trees  is  replaced 
by  mineral  matter  which  reproduces  perfectly  the  texture  of  the 
wood  — a process  called  petrifaction.  The  petrified  forests  of 
Arizona  supply  exquisitely  beautiful  specimens. 

In  many  limestone  regions  underground  waters  have  dissolved 
and  eroded  caverns,  sometimes  of  great  size,  as  in  the  case  of 
Mammoth  Cave  of  Kentucky. 

The  most  important  service  of  ground  water  is  its  work  of  nour- 
ishing plants  which  provide  food  for  the  people ; 4000  to  5000 
pounds  of  water  are  necessary  for  the  production  of  every  pound 
of  corn  or  wheat,  and  it  is  estimated  that  six  or  seven  thousand 
tons  of  water  a year  are  directly  or  indirectly  required  to  produce 
the  food  for  each  person. 


EXERCISE  IX 
Problems 

1.  How  are  the  proportions  of  the  rain  water  which  (1)  run  off,  (2)  soak 
in,  and  (3)  evaporate,  affected  by  each  of  the  following  conditions? 

(а)  Steepness  of  the  slope  of  the  land 

(б)  Rapidity  with  which  the  rain  falls 

(c)  The  character  of  the  surface,  whether  bare  ground,  grass  land,  or 
forest 

( d ) The  character  of  the  soil,  whether  mostly  sand  or  mostly  clay 

(e)  The  climate,  whether  moist,  dry,  hot,  or  cool 

2.  The  ocean  covers  about  three-fourths  of  the  earth’s  surface  and  has 
an  average  depth  of  about  13,000  feet.  How  many  times  as  much  water  is 
in  the  oceans  as  the  estimated  amount  in  the  ground?  (See  page  91.) 

3.  Some  wells  may  be  pumped  continuously  for  hours  or  even  days  with- 
out any  apparent  diminution  of  the  water  supply.  How  do  you  account 
for  this? 

4.  The  water  from  deep  wells  is  less  likely  to  contain  harmful  impurities 
than  that  from  shallow  wells;  does  it  follow  that  the  former  is  necessarily 
■purer  than  the  latter?  Explain. 


WORK  AND  SERVICE  OF  UNDERGROUND  WATER  107 


5.  Water  from  some  springs  has  the  same  temperature  summer  and 
winter.  Account  for  this.  (Consider  depth  of  source  of  supply.) 

6.  Deposits  of  copper,  gold,  silver,  and  some  other  metals  are,  as  a rule, 
found  in  regions  that  show  evidences  of  past  volcanic  activity.  Is  there  any 
reason  for  this  ? Explain. 

7.  Caves  or  caverns  are  nearly  all  found  in  limestone  rocks.  Why  is 
this? 

8.  Mr.  A lives  in  a valley ; the  Surface  of  the  water  in  his  well  is  about 
40  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  where  his  well  is  located.  Mr.  B 
lives  on  ground  100  feet  higher  and  desires  to  drill  a well  there.  Will  he 
necessarily  have  to  drill  140  feet  to  get  water?  Explain. 

9.  How  is  the  water  of  geysers  supposed  to  be  heated?  Would  you 
expect  to  find  geysers  in  the  Appalachian  Mountains?  Why  or  why  not? 

10.  Make  a list  of  the  different  ways  in  which  man  derives  benefit  from 
the  ground  water.  Select  the  three  most  important  of  these.  Give  your 
reasons. 


CHAPTER  VII 


RIVERS  AT  WORK 

Why  There  Are  Rivers.  — Streams  are  nature’s  means  of  carry- 
ing off  surplus  rainfall . A part  of  the  water  which  falls  as  rain  flows 
along  little  depressions  in  the  land  and  unites  with  other  stream- 
lets, which  finally  grow  into  creeks  and  rivers.  Freely  running 
water  follows  lines  of  least  resistance,  and  under  the  attraction 
of  gravity  winds  its  way  ever  toward  lower  land.  Some  of  the 
stream  water  soaks  into  the  ground,  and  some  of  the  ground  water 
seeps  into  the  streams  and  feeds  them  long  after  the  rain  has 
ceased.  If  the  rainfall  is  slight,  there  may  be  no  permanent 
streams.  Rivers  are  the  result  of  rainfall,  slopes,  and  gravity. 

Recall  from  your  former  study  of  geography  the  meaning 
of:  (1)  river  system,  (2)  river  basin,  (3)  watershed  or  divide, 
(4)  mouth,  (5)  source. 

The  River’s  Primary  Work  and  Its  Incidental  Work. — While 

the  river’s  primary  work  is  that  of  carrying  off  surplus  water 
(drainage),  its  incidental  work  of  erosion  is  scarcely  less  impor- 
tant. As  a stream  flows  along  its  winding  course,  the  water  cuts 
into  the  banks  and  scours  the  bed  of  its  channel.  Formerly  peo- 
ple did  not  understand  that  rivers  make  the  valleys  in  which  they 
flow.  They  thought  of  valleys  merely  as  depressions  in  the 
land  into  which  water  would  naturally  drain,  and  in  which  rivers 
would  naturally  flow.  We  have  now  come  to  understand  that, 
as  a rule,  valleys  are  made  by  the  streams  themselves. 

Erosion 

How  Streams  Erode.  — After  a heavy  rain  the  streams  are 
muddy,  and  if  a pailful  of  this  muddy  water  is  allowed  to  stand, 

108 


RIVERS  AT  WORK 


109 


a layer  of  sand  and  later  a film  of  clay  settle  on  the  bottom.  Some 
of  this  sediment  in  the  stream  was  washed  from  iiie  land,  and 
some  was  eroded  from  the  banks,  particularly  at  the  curves.  In 
spring  the  melting  snow  in  the  mountains  may  convert  these 
streams  into  torrents  that  are  able  to  roll  along  heavy  stones 
(Fig.  77).  Such  streams  erode  or  dislodge  an  enormous  quantity 
of  rock  material  which  furnishes  the  tools  for  further  scour- 


Fig.  77.  — Course  of  a mountain  stream,  showing  the  large  size  of  the  stones  which 
are  moved  by  a rapid  current.  (U.  S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


ing  of  the  channel.  Thus,  by  undercutting  their  banks,  pluck- 
ing loose  rocks,  and  grinding  them  up  into  eroding  tools,  the 
rivers  deepen  and  broaden  their  channels ; the  greater  part  of 
this  work  is  done  when  the  streams  are  at  flood. 

How  Weathering  Aids  Erosion.  — By  weakening  the  rocks, 
the  weathering  agents  (see  page  55)  make  the  work  of  stream  ero- 
sion much  easier  than  it  otherwise  would  be.  Some  of  the  rock 
waste  produced  by  weathering  is  washed  into  the  streams,  or 


110 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  78.  — A mountain  slope  deeply  gullied  by  small  streams  that  flow  only  at  times  of  rain.  On  such 
steep,  bare  slopes,  erosion  is  very  effective.  (U . S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


RIVERS  AT  WORK 


111 


slides  and  creeps  down  to  the  water’s  edge  and  is  swept  away  with 
the  next  flood,  only  to  have  the  process  repeated  again  and  again. 

How  Valleys  Are  Made  Deeper  and  Wider.  — Under  some 
conditions,  as  in  the  case  of  the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado,  for 
example,  the  river  erodes  its  channel  to  a great  depth,  but  the 
gorge  does  not  become  very  broad,  owing  to  its  relative  youth  and 


Fig.  79.  — A meandering  stream,  California.  (JJ . S.  Geol.  Sur.) 

to  the  slowness  of  weathering  in  a dry  climate.  In  other  places, 
active  weathering  causes  the  valley  to  broaden  as  rapidly  as  the 
stream  deepens  it,  and  a wide,  open  valley  is  made.  Further- 
more, rivers  commonly  flow  in  curves,  cutting  first  against  one  side 
of  the  valley  and  then  against  the  other.  This  lateral  or  sideivard 
erosion  is  one  of  the  principal  ways  by  which  streams  broaden 
their  valleys  (Fig.  79).  Briefly  stated,  valleys  are  deepened 
by  vertical  or  downward  erosion  and  are  widened  by  weathering, 
surface  washing,  and  the  swinging  of  the  stream  from  side  to  side. 


112 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


The  great  ox-bow  curves  made  by  rivers  are  termed  meanders 
(Fig.  96).  In  a later  chapter  it  will  be  shown  how  glaciers  also 
widen  and  deepen  valleys. 

The  rate  at  which  rivers  erode  depends  mainly  upon  (1)  the  hard- 
ness of  the  material  (rock  or  earth)  in  which  the  river  is  working; 
(2)  the  rapidity  with  which  the  river  flows  ; (3)  the  volume  of  wa- 


Fig.  80.  — A young  stream  whose  ungraded  course  is  filled  with  falls  and  rapids. 

( XJ . S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


ter  which  it  carries ; and  (4)  the  aid  which  it  receives  from  weather- 
ing. Although  we  speak  of  a stream  as  eroding  rapidly,  w'e  mean  this 
only  in  a comparative  sense,  for  the  great  valleys  of  the  world 
have  surely  been  hundreds  of  thousands  of  years  in  the  making ; 
as  a rule  only  minor  changes  are  produced  in  a man’s  lifetime. 

Young,  Mature,  and  Old  Rivers.  — A river  has  its  beginning, 
its  period  of  youth,  merging  into  middle  age  or  maturity,  and 
its  old  age. 


RIVERS  AT  WORK 


113 


Youth.  — In  the  diagram  (Fig.  81a)  is  represented  a plain 
recently  raised  above  the  sea ; it  is  a new  land  surface  and  a few 
streams  are  just  beginning  to  develop  in  the  slight  depressions. 
These  streams  are  in  the  stage  of  early  youth,  for  they  have  few 


tributaries  and  are  separated  by  broad  stretches  of  land  which 
are  poorly  drained. 

Maturity.  — Gradually  the  main  streams  deepen  and  widen 
their  valleys,  more  tributaries  develop,  and  the  whole  region 
slowly  becomes  one  of  many  branching  valleys  between  which  rise 
hills  — the  remnants  of  the  upland  in  which  the  valleys  are  being 
cut.  The  river  system  has  passed  into  the  stage  of  maturity, 
but  a long  period  of  time  has  elapsed  in  bringing  it  to  this  stage 
(Fig.  Sib). 


114 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Old  Age.  — If  the  work  of  weathering  and  erosion  (together 
termed  denudation)  continue,  the  hills  will  become  still  lower, 
the  slopes  more  gentle,  the  valleys  wider,  and  eventually  old  age 
will  be  reached.  Such  uninterrupted  progress  from  early  youth 
to  old  age  rarely  occurs,  because  the  time  required  to  accomplish 


Fig.  81b.  - — The  same  region  as  that  in  Fig.  81a,  but  showing  the  streams  in  a more 
advanced  stage  of  development;  many  streams,  broader  valleys,  and  narrower 
inter-stream  areas.  ( Lobeck .) 


it  is  so  long  that  an  uplift  or  a sinking  of  the  land  is  almost  sure 
to  intervene  before  old  age  is  attained. 

The  Same  River  May  Have  Young,  Mature,  and  Old  Portions.  — 
Many  rivers  in  their  lower  courses  have  the  qualities  of  ad- 
vanced age ; in  their  middle  courses  they  have  the  steep  valley 
slopes  and  occasional  rapids  which  belong  to  the  stage  of  early 
maturity ; and  in  their  headwaters  in  the  mountains  they  have 
all  the  traits  of  turbulent  youth ; that  is,  vigorous  erosion,  steep- 


RIVERS  AT  WORK 


115 


sided  gorges,  many  rapids  and  falls,  and  bowlder-filled  chan- 
nels. 

Impressive  Features  of  River  Work 

Rapids  and  Falls.  — These  belong  to  the  period  of  the  river’s 
youth.  Bapids  are  stretches  in  a river  where  the  water  plunges 
down  rocky  ledges  or  over  accumulations  of  loose  rocks,  churning 
itself  into  foam  and  usually  making  navigation  dangerous  or  im- 


Fig.  82.  — - Falls  in  the  Missouri  River  in  Montana,  due  to  a resistant  bed  of 
rock  in  the  channel  of  the  river.  ( U . S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


possible.  The  Whirlpool  Rapids  in  the  Niagara  River  and  the 
rapids  of  the  St.  Lawrence  are  examples  on  a grand  scale.  In 
the  process  of  time,  however,  the  plunging  water  tends  to  wear 
away  the  rocks  that  cause  the  rapids,  and  the  rapids  disappear. 

Falls  are  due  to  a variety  of  causes,  the  most  common  one  be- 
ing the  presence  in  the  river’s  course  of  rocks  of  unequal  hard- 
ness or  resistance.  The  beautiful  Lower  Falls  of  the  Yellow- 
stone, in  the  Yellowstone  National  Park,  are  due  to  a body  of 
resistant,  igneous  rock  which  here  extends  across  the  river  (Fig.  83). 


116 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  83.  — Great  Falls  and  canon  of  the  Yellowstone  River.  The  rocks  on  either  side  of  the  canon  are  of  a rich  yellow 

color,  giving  the  river  its  name.  ( U . S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


RIVERS  AT  WORK 


117 


Niagara  Falls  are  due  to  a thick  layer  of  limestone  which  is 
underlain  by  softer  layers  of  shale  (Fig.  84).  Near  the  end 
of  the  Glacial  Period  the  Niagara  River  was  born  ; it  flowed  north- 
ward as  now,  and  about  seven  miles  below  the  present  falls  it 
plunged  over  the  edge  of  the  Niagara  limestone,  which  there  forms 


Fig.  84.  — The  American  Falls  at  Niagara.  ( TJ . S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


an  escarpment,  or  steep  rock-slope.  The  limestone  is  resistant, 
but  the  swirling  water  at  the  base  of  the  fall  gradually  undercuts 
the  softer  shales  below,  and  the  heavy  limestone,  robbed  of  its 
support,  breaks  off  in  huge  blocks  and  tumbles  into  the  chasm. 
Each  time  this  occurs  the  crest  of  the  cataract  recedes  a few  feet 
/arther  upstream.  Century  by  century  the  fall  has  worked  its 


118 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


way  upstream,  leaving  a deep  gorge,  now  over  seven  miles  in 
length,  extending  downstream  from  the  falls. 

Future  of  Niagara  Falls. — At  the  present  time  the  cataract 
is  divided  into  two  parts  hv  Goat  Island  (Fig.  84).  The  lesser 
fall  is  on  the  American  side  of  this  island  and  the  great  horse- 
shoe fall  is  on  the  Canadian  side.  So  much  more  water  pours 
over  the  latter  that  its  crest  is  receding  faster  than  that  of  the 
American  fall ; in  the  course  of  time  it  will  probably  draw  to  itself 


Fig.  85.  — A view  of  the  Lower  Falls  of  the  Genesee  River  at  Rochester,  N.  Y., 
as  they  appeared  years  ago.  The  city  owes  much  of  its  early  growth  to  the 
water  power  available  at  the  falls.  ( Physiography  Lab.  Cornell  Univ.) 


more  and  more  of  the  volume  of  the  river,  and  gradually  the  Amer- 
ican fall  will  dwindle  away  and  Niagara  will  again  be  a single 
cataract. 

Niagara  as  a Measure  of  Time.  — Knowing  that  Niagara 
Falls  came  into  existence  near  the  end  of  the  Ice  Age,  and  having 
noted  that  its  crest  now  recedes  at  the  rate  of  about  5 feet  a year, 
geologists  have  sought  to  use  these  facts  as  a means  of  estimat- 
ing the  length  of  time  since  the  Glacial  Period.  If  we  were  sure 
that  the  falls  had  always  receded  at  the  same  rate  as  notv,  we  should 
have  only  to  divide  the  total  number  of  feet  that  the  falls  have 


RIVERS  AT  WORK 


119 


retreated  (7  miles  = 36,960  feet)  by  the  number  of  feet  of  retreat 
each  year  (say  5)  and  we  should  get  about  7400  years.  But  since 
we  know  that  the  retreat  of  the  falls  has  not  always  been  at  the 
present  rate,  this  period  of  7400  years  can  be  considered  only 
as  an  interesting  but  inaccurate  measure;  20,000  to  35,000  years 
is  accepted  by  many  as  a more  probable  estimate. 

Other  Noted  Falls. — The  Falls  of  St.  Anthony  in  the  Mississippi  River, 
locating  the  great  flour-milling  city  of  Minneapolis,  and  similar  Falls  of  the 
Genesee  River  in  New  York,  locating  Rochester  (Fig.  85),  once  the  leading 
flour-milling  city,  are  of  the  same  general  type  as  Niagara;  while  the  Falls 
of  the  Passaic  River,  locating  the  silk-making  city  of  Paterson,  N.  J.,  are 
due  to  a body  of  igneous  rock  extending  across  the  river’s  course.  In  their 
formation  they  resemble  the  Lower  Falls  of  the  Yellowstone,  referred  to  on 
page  115. 

The  Victoria  Falls  of  the  Zambesi  River  in  South  Africa,  said  to  be  more 
imposing  than  Niagara,  are  due  to  inequalities  in  a vast  body  of  solidified 
lava  in  which  the  river  is  cutting  this  portion  of  its  channel.  The  Shoshone 
Falls  in  the  Snake  River  in  Idaho  are  of  somewhat  similar  origin. 

Summarizing,  we  may  say  that  rapids  and  falls  belong  to  the 
youthful  stage  of  a river,  are  usually  due  to  the  presence  of  un- 
equally resistant  rocks  in  the  stream  channel,  are  often  of  impos- 
ing grandeur,  frequently  afford  water  power  of  great  value,  but 
in  time  disappear  by  erosion. 

The  Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado.  — Speaking  of  this  chasm, 
a noted  geologist  has  said  : “ Of  all  the  gorges  and  canons  of  the 
world,  and  perhaps  of  all  works  of  nature,  the  most  wonderful 
example  is  the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado”  (Fig.  86).  Dut- 
ton, to  whom  we  owe  many  masterly  word  pictures  of  western 
scenery,  wrote : “ It  is  not  magnitude  alone  that  gives  this  mar- 
velous canon  its  preeminence ; it  is  the  gorgeous  and  varied  color- 
ing of  its  mighty  walls,  the  endless  details  in  the  sculpturing 
of  its  battlements  and  towers,  the  ever  changing  atmospheric 
effects  of  its  profound  depths  and  the  wonderful  stimulus  to  the 
imagination  with  which  it  feeds  the  mind.” 

Rising  in  the  heart  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  Colorado 
River  in  its  lower  course  traverses  the  arid  plateaus  of  the  South- 
west, and  pours  its  muddy  current  into  the  Gulf  of  California. 
The  river  is  2000  miles  long,  but  the  Grand  Canon  (in  Arizona) 


120 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


is  between  200  and  300  miles  in  length.  The  Colorado  pla- 
teau has  been  slowly  rising  during  the  long  ages  that  the  river  has 


Fig.  86.  — Portion  of  the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado  River  in  Arizona. 
The  rocks  are  of  many  colors;  the  canon  is  nearly  a mile  deep.  (U.  S.  Geol.  Sur.) 

been  eroding  the  chasm,  which  is  now  a mile  deep  and  from  5 to 
13  miles  broad  at  the  top,  yet  scarcely  wider  than  the  river  at 
the  bottom.  Tributary  gorges,  into  whose  depths  the  sun  pene- 


RIVERS  AT  WORK 


121 


trates  scarcely  two  hours  a day,  branch  out  from  either  side.  The 
nearly  horizontal  beds  of  rock,  of  gorgeous  colors,  and  unequal 
hardness,  weather  into  castellated  forms  and  complete  the  most 
impressive  example  of  river  erosion  that  the  world  affords.  Here 
we  have  an  instance  of  river-cutting  (1)  in  an  arid  plateau,  (2)  by 
a stream  of  large  volume  and  rapid  flow,  (3)  being  supplied  with 
abundant  cutting  tools,  and  (4)  allowed  to  pursue  its  work  for 
ages  without  interruption ; the  Grand  Canon  is  the  result. 

Erosion  and  Natural  Scenery.  — Running  water  has  been  the 
master  sculptor  of  the  ages.  Without  its  work  the  surface  of 
the  earth  would  present  an  aspect  of  dull  monotony,  with 
stretches  of  featureless  plains,  and  dreary  plateaus  devoid  of  scenic 
beauty.  Instead  of  majestic  peaks,  we  should  have  only  huge 
swells  or  blocks  of  uplifted  rock  without  pass,  valley,  or  canon ; 
no  gorge  of  the  Rhine,  no  Alpine  peaks,  no  Royal  Gorge  of  the 
Arkansas,  or  Iron  Gates  of  the  Danube;  no  gorgeous  canon  of 
the  Yellowstone  or  Colorado ; no  Delaware  Water  Gap,  or  Ni- 
agara. It  is  the  work  of  weathering  and  erosion  that  gives  us 
the  endless  variety  of  mountain  sculpturing,  and  much  of  the 
charm  of  all  natural  scenery. 


Transportation  and  Deposition  by  Rivers 

Material  Carried  in  Suspension.  — In  quiet  water,  even  fine 
particles  of  clay  soon  sink,  but  in  rapidly  flowing  water,  sand 
and  gravel  are  carried,  and  large  stones  are  rolled  or  shoved 
along  (Fig.  77).  A stream’s  power  of  carrying  rock  waste  is 
greatly  increased  by  even  a moderate  rise  in  velocity. 

Importance  of  Velocity.  — A river  flowing  less  than  one  mile 
an  hour  (a  third  as  fast  as  a man  walks)  can  carry  large  grains 
of  sand,  while  one  flowing  twice  as  fast  can  carry  stones  04  times 
as  heavy.  The  law  is : the  transporting  power  of  a river  varies 

as  the  sixth  power  of  its  velocity ; that  is,  by  multiplying  the  veloc- 
ity of  the  current  by  two,  for  example,  the  carrying  power  is 
multiplied  by  the  sixth  power  of  2,  or  64.  Swift  mountain  streams, 


122 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


and  rivers  at  flood,  roll  along  bowlders  weighing  hundreds  of 
pounds. 

Illustrations  of  the  Quantity  of  Material  Carried  by  Rivers.  — 

The  Mississippi  annually  carries  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  upwards 
of  400,000,000  tons  of  sediment.  This  is  more  material  than 
was  excavated  in  digging  the  Panama  Canal.  At  its  flood  stage 
the  Colorado  pours  silt  into  the  Gulf  of  California  at  the  rate  of 
1000  tons  a minute.  It  is  estimated  that  if  all  the  streams  of  the 
United  States  could  have  been  concentrated  on  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama  they  would,  in  73  days,  have  dug  the  canal,  which  re- 
quired ten  years  to  complete  with  the  most  powerful  machines 
devised  by  man. 

The  Po  River  in  northern  Italy  is  removing  rock  waste  at  a 
rate  that  is  equal  to  lowering  the  entire  surface  of  its  basin  one 
foot  every  729  years.  The  rivers  of  the  world  carry  a greater  weight 
of  sediment  to  the  sea  every  year  than  the  weight  of  all  the  freight 
carried  by  all  the  railroads  in  the  same  length  of  time. 

Material  Carried  in  Solution.  — Besides  the  visible  load  which 
rivers  carry  in  suspension,  they  also  carry  an  invisible  load  of 
dissolved  material  taken  from  the  soil  and  rocks  through  which 
the  water  has  passed ; most  of  the  common  salt  and  lime  car- 
bonate in  the  ocean  was  carried  there  in  this  way.  Even  as  small 
a body  of  water  as  Great  Salt  Lake  in  Utah  contains  as  much 
salt  as  the  100,000,000  American  people  use  in  90  years  at  the 
present  rate  of  consumption.  It  has  been  estimated  that  streams 
annually  carry  100  tons  of  dissolved  matter  on  an  average  for 
every  square  mile  of  land  surface  of  the  earth,  or  about 
5,000,000,000  tons  — 3,000,000  train  loads. 

Floods.  — There  could  be  no  rich  alluvial  plains  without  floods, 
but  these  floods  are  often  disastrous.  The  flood  in  Ohio  in  March, 
1913,  which  did  such  damage  to  the  city  of  Dayton,  destroyed 
about  $200,000,000  worth  of  property  (Fig.  87).  The  Johns- 
town flood  in  Pennsylvania  (1889)  drowned  over  2000  people. 
The  Hwang,  or  Yellow,  River  is  known  as  “China’s  Sorrow” 
because  of  the  appalling  loss  of  life  due  to  its  frequent  floods. 
Its  flood  plain  is  one  of  the  most  densely  populated  regions  of 


RIVERS  AT  WORE 


123 


the  world,  and  time  after  time  from  half  a million  to  a million 
people  have  lost  their  lives  by  the  river’s  overflow.  The  frequent 
and  devastating  floods  of  the  lower  Mississippi  are  matters  of 


Fig.  87.  — A street  in  Dayton  at  the  time  of  the  flood  of  1913. 


national  concern,  and  their  control  offers  one  of  our  great  engi- 
neering problems. 

Deposits  Made  by  Rivers.  — Tt  necessarily  follows  that,  since 
rivers  erode  the  land  and  transport  the  waste,  they  must  deposit 
it  somewhere.  Wherever  the  velocity  of  a stream  is  checked, 
its  transporting  power  is  reduced,  and  sediment  is  likely  to  be 
deposited. 

Sand  bars  are  built  on  the  inner  side  of  the  curves  of  a river  or 
along  level  stretches,  or  wherever  the  velocity  of  the  stream  is 
checked. 

Flood  Plains.  — When  streams  overflow  their  banks  and  in- 
undate the  bordering  lowlands,  they  deposit  a layer  of  silt  or  sand 
and  gradually  build  up  the  flood  plains  or  alluvial  plains  which 
border  many  rivers,  especially  in  their  lower  courses.  Many  of 


124 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


the  richest  agricultural  valleys  in  the  world  are  the  flood  plains  of 
great  rivers  like  the  Nile,  the  Ganges,  and  the  Yangtze,  which 
were  the  seats  of  great  nations  and  high  civilizations  as  far  back 
as  history  reaches. 

Deltas.  — Some  rivers,  but  not  all,  enter  the  sea  or  lakes  under 
such  conditions  that  their  sediments  are  deposited  at  the  mouth 
and  build  up  deltas.  A few  rivers,  like  the  St.  Lawrence,  flow 
through  lakes  in  which  they  deposit  most  of  their  load  and  so 
have  little  material  with  which  to  build  deltas ; the  mouths  of 


Fig.  88.  — Alluvial  fans  resulting  from  placer  mining  operations,  Montana. 
( Physiography  Lab.  Cornell  Univ.) 


other  rivers  are  so  swept  by  tides  and  currents  that  deltas  do 
not  form. 

The  delta  of  the  Nile  is  a triangle  120  miles  on  each  side  and  is 
intensively  cultivated  (Fig.  125).  A large  part  of  Holland  is  the 
delta  of  the  Rhine  (Fig.  115).  The  head  of  the  ancient  delta  of 
the  Mississippi  is  at  Cairo,  111.,  600  miles  from  the  present  mouth. 
The  delta  of  the  Hwang  River  in  China  is  more  than  600  miles  broad, 
and  is  the  home  of  many  millions  of  people.  The  rich  valley 
of  the  Po,  in  northern  Italy,  is  built  of  delta  and  flood-plain 
deposits.  The  Rhone  is  advancing  its  delta  into  the  Mediter- 
ranean at  the  rate  of  a mile  a century. 


RIVERS  AT  WORK 


125 


Alluvial  Fans.  — At  the  mouths  of  mountain  valleys,  especially 
in  arid  lands,  rivers,  fed  by  mountain  rains  and  snows,  plunge 
down  the  steep  slopes  carrying  loads  of  rock  waste.  At  the  base 
of  the  mountains  their  speed  is  checked ; they  flow  some  distance 
out  into  the  plain  or  desert,  then  gradually  sink  into  the  sand, 
and  the  rock  waste  which  they  deposit  builds  alluvial  fans  (Fig. 
88) , often  ma  ny  square 
miles  in  extent. 

Sometimes  the  va- 
rious fans  spread  out 
until  they  unite  and 
form  a nearly  con- 
tinuous slope  extend- 
ing for  miles  along 
the  base  of  a moun- 
tain range. 

Filled  Valleys.  — 

In  this  way  valleys 
become  partially  filled 
and  are  known  as  filled 
valleys.  The  Great 
Valley  of  California, 
extending  nearly  the 
length  of  the  state, 
and  the  Ganges  Val- 
ley of  India  are  of  this 
type  (Fig.  89). 

River  Terraces. — 

Qnmotlmoo  o Fig.  89.  — California  and  its  Great  Valley  deeply 

O Cl  Hit/  till  it/O  Cl 1 X J.  V V L i Ilf  , l *1* 

tilled  with  waste  eroded  from  the  inclosing  moun- 
whicll  has  partially  tains.  ( Model  by  Drake,  Stanford  University.) 

filled  its  valley  with 

alluvial  deposits  has  its  supply  of  sediment  greatly  reduced, 
and  it  proceeds  to  erode  a channel  in  this  alluvial  filling.  As 
the  river  cuts  its  new  channel  downward,  it  changes  its 
course  more  or  less,  leaving  along  the  sides  of  the  valley  portions 
of  the  alluvial  filling  in  the  form  of  terraces.  This  has  occurred 


126 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


in  all  the  rivers  which  carried  away  the  waters  of  the  melting  ice 
at  the  close  of  the  Glacial  Period ; for  example,  the  Connecticut, 

Delaware,  Susque- 
hanna, Ohio,  Missis- 
sippi, and  Missouri. 

Drowned  River 
Mouths.  — Portions 
of  the  continents  are 
frequently  rising  or 
sinking  — very,  very 
slowly,  of  course. 
When  the  land  along 
the  coast  sinks,  the 
mouths  of  the  rivers 

Fig.  90.  — Map  showing  the  location  of  Quebec,  the  , , , , , 

“Gibraltar  of  America.”  dl owned  and  the 

sea  backs  up  into  the 

valleys;  thus  V-shaped  bays,  widening  in  the  direction  of  the 
sea,  are  formed.  Such  broad-mouthed  rivers  are  called  estua- 
ries (Figs.  90,  226,  240).  The  drowning  of  the  coast  deepens 
these  river  mouths,  and  natural  harbors  are  formed,  as  at  New 
York,  London,  and  Philadelphia.  The  eastern  coast  of  North 
America,  the  coast  of  northwestern  Europe,  and  many  other 
coasts  are  of  this  type. 


Summary 

Streams  are  nature’s  means  of  carrying  away  the  surplus  rain- 
fall. Their  own  motion  and  the  rock  waste  which  they  carry,  roll, 
and  drag  along  enable  rivers  slowly  to  wear  their  channels  deeper 
and  wider  and  thus  to  carve  the  valleys  in  which  they  flow. 

Weathering  aids  river  erosion  both  by  weakening  the  rocks  and 
by  supplying  rock  waste  which  the  river  uses  as  eroding  tools. 

Rivers  and  valleys  have  their  youth,  maturity,  and  old  age. 
In  youth  the  streams  have  few  tributaries  and  usually  flow  in 
ungraded  courses  and  steep-sided  valleys.  With  increasing  time 


RIVERS  AT  WORK 


127 


more  tributaries  develop,  rapids  and  falls  disappear,  divides  are 
eaten  away,  and  valleys  broaden  out. 

Rapids  and  falls  belong  to  young  streams ; they  are  most  com- 
monly due  to  harder  or  more  resistant  rocks  in  the  stream  channels. 
A very  resistant  layer,  like  the  limestone  at  Niagara,  underlain 
by  softer  rocks,  produces  the  cataract  type  of  fall.  By  the  work- 
ing back  of  the  crest,  the  fall  slowly  moves  upstream,  leaving  a 
gorge  below  the  fall,  as  at  Niagara. 

A powerful  stream  working  for  a long  time  in  a high  plateau 
will  carve  a very  deep  canon ; the  Grand  Canon  of  the  Colorado 
in  Arizona,  nearly  a mile  deep,  is  a striking  example. 

Rivers  erode,  transport,  and  deposit.  They  carry  material  in 
suspension  and  in  solution.  A big,  swift  stream  can  move  rocks 
weighing  many  hundreds  of  pounds ; and  a great  river  like  the 
Mississippi  carries  to  the  sea  hundreds  of  millions  of  tons  of  silt 
each  year. 

River  deposits  take  the  form  of  sand  bars,  flood  plains,  deltas, 
and,  in  special  cases,  alluvial  fans. 

When  a coast  sinks,  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  are  drowned,  and 
harbors  are  produced. 


EXERCISE  X 

1.  Why  are  there  rivers? 

2.  Why  do  they  flow  downhill? 

3.  Why  do  the  main  rivers  flow  to  the  sea? 

4.  Why  does  a river  system  have  a trunk  stream  and  tributaries  ? 

5.  Why  do  rivers  flow  in  winding  courses? 

6.  Why  do  some  rivers  flow  slowly  and  others  rapidly  ? 

7.  Why  do  some  rivers,  like  the  Nile  and  Colorado,  have  compar- 
atively few  tributaries?  (Consider  the  rainfall.) 

8.  Why  is  the  same  stream  sometimes  clear  and  sometimes  muddy? 

9.  Why  are  most  valleys  in  humid  lands  occupied  by  streams  ? 

10.  Why  do  most  large  streams  continue  to  flow  even  during  dry  weather  ? 

11.  Why  do  rivers  erode  their  channels? 

12.  Why  do  valleys  become  broader  with  increasing  age? 

13.  Why  is  weathering  an  aid  to  valley-making? 

14.  Why  does  a river  erode  more  actively  on  the  outer  side  of  a curve 
than  on  the  inner  side? 

15.  Why  do  rivers  do  the  greater  part  of  their  work  at  flood  time? 

16.  Why  do  rivers  build  sand  bars  in  their  channels? 

17.  Why  do  some  rivers  build  deltas  while  others  do  not? 


128 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


18.  Why  do  rivers  build  flood  plains? 

19.  Why  does  a large  river  usually  have  a gentle  grade  in  its  lower  course? 

20.  Why  do  most  rivers  have  steeper  grades  in  their  upper  than  in  their 
lower  courses? 

21.  Why  are  there  rapids  and  falls  in  rivers? 

22.  Why  are  these  an  indication  of  river  youth? 

23.  Why  do  some  waterfalls,  such  as  Niagara,  gradually  work  upstream, 
or  recede? 

24.  Why  do  such  rivers  have  gorges  below  the  falls,  but  not  necessarily 
above  ? 

25.  Why  are  the  rivers  of  the  Mississippi  system  longer,  as  a rule,  than 
those  of  the  Atlantic  slope? 

26.  Why  are  there  more  rivers  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  United  States 
than  in  the  western  half? 

27.  Why  is  erosion  called  the  incidental  work  of  a river? 

28.  Why  has  the  Colorado  River  been  able  to  erode  such  a deep  gorge  as 
the  Grand  Canon? 

29.  Why  is  the  volume  of  the  St.  Lawrence  more  uniform  than  that  of 
the  Mississippi? 

30.  Why  does  the  St.  Lawrence  carry  little  sediment? 

31  Why  does  the  Missouri  carry  more  sediment  than  the  upper  Missis- 
sippi ? 

32.  Why  are  alluvial  fans  especially  numerous  in  an  arid  region? 

33.  Why  do  some  rivers,  such  as  the  Rio  Grande,  diminish  in  volume 
as  they  flow  through  their  lower  courses  ? 

34.  Why  do  some  rivers,  such  as  the  Delaware,  have  estuaries  ? 

35.  Why  is  the  Ohio  more  likely  to  have  dangerous  floods  than  the  Mis- 
souri ? 

36.  Why  does  the  Mississippi  have  such  a gentle  grade  from  Cairo  to 
the  Gulf? 

37.  Why  do  nearly  all  of  the  rivers  of  the  British  Isles  have  good  har- 
bors at  their  mouths? 

38.  Why  are  the  floods  of  the  Hwang  River  so  disastrous? 

39.  Why  do  most  of  the  people  of  Egypt  live  along  the  Nile? 

40.  Why  aie  most  of  the  rivers  of  Russia  sluggish? 


140°  120°  100 


CHAPTER  VIII 


HISTORIC  AND  ECONOMIC  ASPECTS  OF  AMERICAN 

RIVERS  1 

Importance  of  Rivers  in  our  Early  History 

Rivers  the  Gateways  of  the  Continent. — When  Europeans  first 
came  to  America  they  found  dense  and  almost  pathless  forests. 
The  tangled,  thorny  undergrowth,  the  fallen  trees  with  their 
upturned  roots  and  splintered  limbs,  the  treacherous  bogs  and 
swamps  combined  to  make  exploration  of  the  continent  by  land 
a nearly  hopeless  task.  In  that  exploration  the  rivers  played 
a part  the  importance  of  which  we  can  now  only  vaguely  appre- 
ciate. The  St.  Lawrence,  the  Hudson,  the  Delaware,  the  Potomac, 
the  James,  and  many  lesser  streams  led  the  explorers  and  colonists 
inland.  The  French  penetrated  1500  miles  into  North  America 
by  way  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Great  Lakes  before  New 
York  or  Philadelphia  was  founded.  Dutch  settlements  early 
lined  the  shores  of  the  Hudson  and  the  Mohawk ; English  set- 
tlements extended  up  the  Connecticut  and  the  Delaware,  and 
less  than  twenty  years  after  the  founding  of  Jamestown,  plan- 
tations spread  along  the  James  for  more  than  a hundred  miles. 
Yet  a short  distance  back  from  the  rivers  the  land  remained  almost 
untouched. 

Early  Difficulties  of  Transportation  in  the  United  States.  — 

In  this  age  we  have  no  realization  of  the  part  which  rivers  played 
in  the  life  of  the  American  people  up  to  the  Railroad  Era  (about 
1840).  Roads  for  vehicles  existed  in  but  few  localities  before  the 
Revolution,  and  for  many  years  afterwards.  Even  between  im- 
portant cities,  the  stage  roads  were  frequently  almost  impassable. 

1 For  topical  outline,  see  end  of  chapter.  Pupils  should  be  able  to  locate  the 
rivers  mentioned  in  the  chapter. 


129 


130 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


An  account  published  in  1797  says : “ The  roads  from  Philadelphia  to 
Baltimore  exhibit,  for  the  greater  part  of  the  way,  an  aspect  of  savage  deso- 
lation. Chasms  to  the  depth  of  six,  eight,  or  ten  feet  occur  at  numerous 
intervals.  A stagecoach  which  left  Philadelphia  on  Feb.  5,  1796,  took  five 
days  to  go  to  Baltimore”  (90  miles).  It  is  said  that  President  John  Adams 
and  his  wife,  driving  overland  to  Washington,  D.  C.,  in  1800,  could  not  fol- 
low the  road  and  lost  their  way  in  the  woods  between  Baltimore  and  Wash- 
ington. Thurlow  Weed  of  New  York  tells  of  a stage  trip,  in  1824,  from 
Albany  to  the  western  part  of  New  York  (about  300  miles)  requiring  six  days 
and  seven  nights.  The  roads  were  in  such  horrible  condition  that  the  horses 
could  seldom  trot,  and  passengers  frequently  had  to  get  out  and  walk,  and 
sometimes  had  to  push  the  coach.  Under  such  conditions  the  transporting 
of  farm  products,  flour,  lumber,  wood,  and  heavy  merchandise  on  land  was 
so  slow  and  expensive  that  it  was  nearly  prohibitive.  It  cost  on  an  average 
from  twenty  to  thirty  times  as  much  to  ship  goods  a long  distance  by  wagon 
or  pack-animal  as  by  boat.  A hundred  dollars  a ton  from  Albany  to  Buffalo, 
or  from  Philadelphia  to  Pittsburgh,  was  a common  charge.  Water  trans- 
portation offered  the  only  remedy  for  such  conditions.  An  apparently  accu- 
rate record  shows  that  during  four  months  in  the  year  1827  there  passed 
down  the  Susquehanna  River  past  Harrisburg  1631  rafts  (mainly  lumber 
and  timber)  and  1370  arks  or  flatboats,  carrying  farm  produce,  whisky, 
coal,  etc.  It  is  estimated  that  300  keel-bottomed  boats  also  passed  during 
the  same  period.  This  would  make  3300  boats  and  rafts  passing  one  city 
in  four  months. 

Rivers  and  the  Fur  Trade. — When  the  white  man  came  to 
America  its  northern  forests  and  streams  abounded  in  fur-bearing 
animals.  The  furs  brought  high  prices  in  Europe,  and  the  profits 
of  the  fur  trade  led  thousands  of  hunters  to  penetrate  the  forests, 
where,  for  the  most  part,  they  followed  the  rivers  and  lakes. 
The  Indian  canoe  and  the  French  batteau  were  almost  the  sole 
mode  of  travel.  Says  Professor  Turner,  “So  powerful  was  the 
combined  influence  of  these  far-reaching  rivers  and  the  ‘ hardy, 
adventurous,  lawless,  fascinating  fur  trade’  that  the  scanty  pop- 
ulation of  Canada  was  irresistibly  drawn  . . . into  the  inter- 
minable recesses  of  the  continent.”  To  this  day  there  is  a 
vast  region  in  Canada  — the  domain  of  the  Hudson’s  Bay 
Company  — where  the  rivers  are  almost  the  only  routes  of  travel, 
and  the  canoe  practically  the  only  conveyance. 

Rivers  and  Colonial  Agriculture.  — Not  only  does  the  flood 
plain  of  a river  furnish  rich  soil,  but  in  the  early  days  the  river 
itself  frequently  furnished  the  only  means  of  marketing  the 


HISTORIC  ASPECTS  OF  AMERICAN  RIVERS  131 


products  of  the  soil.  Nearly  all  the  Virginia  planters  had  their 
own  wharves  on  the  rivers,  from  which  they  shipped  their  tobacco 
and  other  products  directly  to  Europe,  or  by  way  of  the  smaller 
streams  to  convenient  exporting  points  on  the  main  rivers. 
The  prosperity  of  the  southern  tidewater  plantations  was  largely 
dependent  upon  the  numerous  rivers  of  the  region.  Throughout 
the  colonies  agriculture  prospered  only  when  carried  on  within 
easy  reach  of  navigable  waters. 


Fig.  91.  — One  of  the  hundreds  of  New  England  water  powers  that  aided  in  build- 
ing up  the  manufacturing  industries  of  that  region.  (Boston  and  Maine  R.  R .) 

Rivers  and  Early  Manufacturing. — When  the  simple  home 
industries  began  to  give  way  to  manufacturing  in  small  mills 
and  factories,  streams  became  important  for  power.  The  New 
England  rivers  are  short  and  rapid ; in  fact,  most  of  the  Atlantic 
coast  rivers  are  rapid  in  some  part  of  their  courses.  At  rapids 
and  falls,  sawmills,  flour  and  feed  mills,  iron  forges  and  furnaces, 
and  later,  small  cotton  and  woolen  mills,  sprang  up  (Fig.  91). 
Even  as  late  as  1870,  72  per  cent  of  the  manufacturing  of  New 
England  was  done  by  water  power. 


132 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


The  Historic  and  Economic  Importance  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  River  System 

Early  History.  — The  St.  Lawrence  with  its  chain  of  lakes  has 
become  one  of  the  most  important  inland  waterways  of  the  world. 
It  early  led  the  French  into  the  very  heart  of  North  America  at 
the  time  when  the  English  were  pushing  but  a little  way  up  the 


Fig.  92.  — Waterways  in  New  York  State  and  the  near-by  parts  of  Canada. 


short  rivers  of  the  Atlantic  slope.  Explorations  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  upper  Mississippi  gave  the  French  kings  their 
claim  to  the  larger  part  of  North  America.  The  control  of  one 
strategic  point  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  Quebec,  has  carried  with 
it  the  control  of  a domain  half  as  large  as  all  Europe.  Five 
times  in  five  wars  has  this  stronghold  been  besieged,  and 
the  nation  which  held  Quebec  and  the  St.  Lawrence  has  always 
held  Canada. 


HISTORIC  ASPECTS  OF  AMERICAN  RIVERS  133 


Importance  to  Canadian  Commerce.  — Montreal,  at  the  head  of 
ocean  navigation  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  is  over  500  miles  inland, 
and  is  Canada’s  greatest  city  and  seaport.  During  seven  months 
of  the  year  a major  part  of  the  foreign  commerce  of  Canada  uses 
the  St.  Lawrence  River  and  valley.  Steamers  drawing  12  feet  of 


Fig.  93.' — Portion  of  the  St.  Marys  River  (the  “ Soo”)  which  connects  Lake 
Superior  With  Lake  Huron.  By  means  of  canals  and  locks,  boats  pass  around 
the  rapids  or  “ falls.” 


water  may  pass  from  Duluth,  at  the  head  of  Lake  Superior,  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  a distance  of  2000  miles.  However,  canals  around 
rapids  and  falls  are  required ; there  are  two  American  canals  and 
a Canadian  canal  at  Sault  Sainte  Marie;  the  Welland  Canal1 

1 This  canal  i9  being  enlarged  and  the  number  of  locks  is  being  reduced. 


134 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  94.  — View  along  the  upper  Mississippi.  Note  the  flood  plain  flanked  by  flat-topped  bluffs  on  either  side  of  the 

river.  ( Courtesy  C.  M.  and  S.  P.  R.  R.) 


HISTORIC  ASPECTS  OF  AMERICAN  RIVERS 


135 


between  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Ontario  provides  a way  around 
Niagara  Falls ; and  there  are  six  short  canals  which  make  naviga- 
tion possible  around  the  various  rapids  of  the  St.  Lawrence  be- 
tween Lake  Ontario  and  Montreal.  More  than  half  the  people  of 
Canada  live  along  this  waterway  or  within  two  hours’  ride  of  it, 
and  80  per  cent  of  their  manufacturing  industries  are  carried  on 
in  the  same  area. 

Physical  Features  of  the  River.  — In  the  stretch  between  Lake 
Ontario  and  Quebec  the  river  is  from  a half  mile  to  a mile  wide, 
but  beyond  Quebec  it  opens  gradually  into  a broad  estuary  and 
then  merges  into  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  By  means  of  sound- 
ings, the  old  river  channel,  now  deeply  submerged  by  the  drowning 
of  the  valley,  may  be  traced  out  to  the  edge  of  the  continental  shelf 
beyond  Newfoundland  (Fig.  226).  The  river  is  almost  free  from 
sediment  and  is  unusually  uniform  in  its  flow  because  of  the  five 
Great  Lakes  in  its  course.  Though  it  drains  an  area  only  one- 
third  as  great  as  does  the  Mississippi,  it  carries  more  water  to  the 
sea.  The  Ottawa  River  is  the  only  large  tributary.  Water  power 
is  developed  at  the  Soo  (Sault  Sainte  Marie),  at  points  on  the 
St.  Lawrence,  and  on  a vaster  scale  at  Niagara  Falls  (Fig.  93). 


The  Mississippi  — Father  of  Waters 

The  lower  Mississippi  discovered  by  the  Spanish  explorer  Ferdinand 
de  Soto  in  1541  (perhaps  by  Alonso  de  Pineda  in  1519). 

The  upper  Mississippi  discovered  and  explored  by  Father  Marquette 
in  1673  (perhaps  by  the  Frenchmen  Radisson  and  Groseilliers  in  or  about 
1665). 

Length  of  the  Mississippi  proper,  2429  miles. 

Length  from  the  source  of  the  Missouri  to  the  Gulf,  4200  miles. 

Depth  at  low  water,  St.  Paul  to  St.  Louis,  4 feet. 

Depth  at  low  water,  St.  Louis  to  New  Orleans,  8 to  9 feet. 

Navigable  depth,  New  Orleans  to  Gulf,  30  feet  or  more. 

Average  width  between  La  Crosse,  Wis.,  and  St.  Louis,  about  1 mile. 

Average  width  between  St.  Louis  and  the  mouth  of  the  river,  I to  1§  miles. 

Average  slope  of  the  river  from  St.  Paul  to  Cairo,  6 inches  to  the  mile. 

Average  slope  of  the  river  from  Cairo  to  Gulf,  3 inches  to  the  mile. 

Average  slope  of  the  river  from  New  Orleans  to  the  Gulf,  A inch  to  the 
mile. 


136 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Falls  and  Rapids: 

Above  Minneapolis,  numerous  falls  and  rapids. 

At  Minneapolis,  — rapids  and  falls  of  St.  Anthony,  total  fall  of  78  feet. 

Near  Rock  Island,  111.,  and  Davenport,  Iowa,  rapids,  20  feet  fall  in  16  miles. 

At  Keokuk,  Iowa,  rapids,  23  feet  fall  in  12  miles. 

The  Upper  Mississippi.  — Most  great  rivers  have  their  head- 
waters in  mountains,  but  the  Mississippi  begins  on  a plain  in  a 
maze  of  swamps  and  lakes.  From  the  head  of  navigation  at 

Minneapolis  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Ohio, 
the  river  flows  through 
an  ancient  rock  chan- 
nel filled  to  a depth 
of  150  to  200  feet 
by  the  river’s  own 
deposits  (Fig.  94). 
The  ancient  channel 
is  in  most  places  sev- 
eral times  as  wide  as 
the  present  river  and 
its  rocky  bluffs  rise 
from  100  to  650  feet 
above  the  level  of  the 
river.  It  is  a region 
of  rare  beauty, 
scarcely  inferior  to  the 
Highlands  of  the  Hud- 
son or  the  Gorge  of  the  Rhine.  Its  sediments  have  built 
countless  islands,  among  which  the  river  threads  its  way,  and 
the  main  channel  is  sometimes  hard  to  determine  (Fig.  95).  At 
low  water,  boats  drawing  four  feet  have  some  difficulty  in 
navigating. 

The  Lower  Mississippi.  — South  of  the  junction  with  the  Ohio 
the  Mississippi  changes  greatly.  As  you  go  down  the  river 
the  rock  bluffs  are  farther  and  farther  apart,  and  the  alluvial 
plain,  widening  southward,  blends  with  the  low  coastal  plain. 
Cairo  marks  the  head  of  the  original  delta  of  the  Mississippi. 


HISTORIC  ASPECTS  OF  AMERICAN  RIVERS  137 


Over  the  flood  plain,  from  20  to  70  miles  in  width,  the  sluggish 
river  meanders  in  great  ox-bow  curves.  From  time  to  time  the 
river  cuts  through  the  narrow  neck  of  some  of  these  bends  and 
then  abandons  the  long  curve, 
which  becomes  one  of  the  many 
ox-bow  lakes  that  border  the 
river  (Fig.  96). 

The  Natural  Levees.  — The 

Missouri  brings  to  the  Missis- 
sippi an  enormous  amount  of 
silt,  making  the  water  yellow. 

So  slight  is  the  grade  of  the 
river  that  at  low  water  the 
stream  flows  lazily  and  de- 
posits sand  bars  at  frequent 
intervals.  For  ages  past,  at 
flood  stages,  the  river  has  over- 
flowed its  banks  and  covered 
its  flood  plain,  slowly  building 
it  up  by  the  sediments  which 
it  deposited.  More  sediment 
was  deposited  near  the  river 
than  at  a distance,  and  this 
caused  the  building  up  of  low 
embankments,  called  natural 
levees,  on  either  side  of  the 
river  (Fig.  97).  Since  these  are  a little  higher  and  drier  than 
land  some  distance  back  from  the  river,  the  levees  are  selected 
as  sites  for  plantations  and  towns  and  for  the  roadbeds  of  rail- 
roads. New  Orleans  is  built  on  such  a natural  levee. 

The  Problem  of  Controlling  the  River.  — So  great  is  the  area  of 
land  whose  waters  drain  into  the  Mississippi  and  so  large  is  the 
annual  rainfall  that  at  times  the  river  is  forced  to  carry  an  enor- 
mous volume  of  water.  The  Ohio  is  the  greatest  contributor. 
Nearly  every  spring  the  flood  waters  rise  to  a dangerous  height, 
overflowing  the  banks,  breaking  through  the  levees,  and  inundating 


Fig.  96.  — Meanders  in  the  lower  Mis- 
sissippi. The  black  areas  are  ox-bow 
lakes  in  abandoned  channels  of  the 
river.  ( After  Martin,  Wis.  Geol.  Sur.) 


138 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  97.  - — Levee  along  the  lower  Mississippi  in  Louisiana.  ( XJ . S.  Bur.  of  Soils.) 


the  lowlands.  To  prevent  this  overflow,  artificial  levees  or  dikes 
of  earth  have  been  built.  They  are  partially,  but  not  wholly, 


Fig.  98.  — Junction  of  the  Allegheny  and  Monongahela  rivers  at  Pittsburgh. 
Coal  barges  in  the  foreground.  (Physiography  Lab.  Cornell  Univ.) 

successful ; floods  still  break  through  the  dikes  and  a seri- 
ous loss  of  life  and  property  sometimes  follows.  The  national 
government  and  the  states  most  interested  are  struggling  with  the 


HISTORIC  ASPECTS  OF  AMERICAN  RIVERS  139 


problem  which  will  be  partially,  if  not  wholly,  solved  by  complet- 
ing the  line  of  dikes  and  building  them  higher  and  stronger. 


Fig.  99.  — Royal  Gorge  of  the  Arkansas  River,  2600  ft.  deep,  through  the  Front 
Range  of  the  Rooky  Mountains  in  Colorado;  an  impressive  example  of  river 
erosion.  ( Courtesy  D.  & R.  G.  R.  R-) 


140 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Principal  Tributaries  of  the  Mississippi 

The  Ohio  (967  miles  long)  is  less  than  half  as  long  as  the  Mis- 
souri (2400  miles),  and  its  drainage  basin  has  less  than  one-half 
the  area,  yet  it  pours  twice  as  much  water  into  the  Mississippi. 
This  is  due  both  to  the  heavier  rainfall  and  to  the  smaller  evap- 
oration and  less  seepage  into  the  soil.  The  Ohio  has  been  one  of 
our  most  important  rivers.  It  has  been  designated  by  Congress 
as  the  first  river  to  be  extensively  improved  for  navigation ; 54 
locks  and  movable  dams  are  being  constructed  in  an  effort  to 
secure  a 9-foot  channel  the  entire  length  of  the  river.  These 
improvements  will  cost  well  toward  $100,000,000. 

The  Missouri  heads  in  the  Continental  Divide  in  Montana,  and 
is  longer  than  any  European  river ; it  is  one  of  the  muddiest  of 
streams,  carrying  more  than  100,000,000  tons  of  silt  annually. 
In  the  region  of  Great  Falls,  Mont.,  it  takes  five  successive 
plunges,  612  feet  in  all,  thus  yielding  great  water  power.  At 
times  of  high  water  it  was  considerably  used  for  navigation  until 
its  territory  was  traversed  by  railroads.  At  low  water  it  is  very 
shallow  and  is  now  scarcely  used  at  all  for  navigation. 

The  Arkansas  and  the  Red  rivers  are  long,  shallow  streams, 
entering  the  lower  Mississippi  from  the  west.  Improvements  for 
the  benefit  of  navigation  have  been  made  by  the  government, 
but  only  a small  amount  of  traffic  is  maintained.  Where  the 
Arkansas  cuts  its  way  through  the  eastern  range  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  in  Colorado,  it  has  carved  one  of  the  most  famous 
gorges  of  the  West,  the  Royal  Gorge  of  the  Arkansas ; it  is  more 
than  2500  feet  in  depth  with  almost  perpendicular  walls,  and  is 
one  of  the  scenic  features  of  the  Rockies  (Fig.  99). 

The  Rise  and  Decline  of  the  Mississippi  as  a Commercial 

Waterway 

Three  Periods.  — People  who  now  live  near  the  Mississippi 
River  and  see  only  the  occasional  passing  of  a steamboat  can 
scarcely  picture  to  themselves  the  scenes  on  that  river  before  the 


HISTORIC  ASPECTS  OF  AMERICAN  RIVERS 


141 


Fig.  100.  — Power  house,  lock,  dry  dock,  and  dam  across  the  Mississippi  at  Keokuk,  Iowa.  ( Courtesy  Miss.  R.  Power  Co.) 


142 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


day  of  railroads.  It  is  convenient  to  divide  the  history  of  the 
Mississippi  River  navigation  into  three  periods : 

1 . The  period  of  the  canoe  and  flatboat,  extending  to  the  decade 
between  1820  and  1830. 

2.  The  period  of  greatest  steamboat  traffic,  ending  between 
1850  and  1860. 

3.  The  period  of  decline  and  possible  recovery,  1860  to  the 
present. 

The  Period  of  the  Canoe  and  Flatboat.  — From  the  days  of 
the  first  fur  traders  until  about  1800,  the  Mississippi  system 
formed  a network  of  waterways  traversed  mainly  by  canoes. 
At  several  places  in  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Ohio,  the 
headwaters  of  streams  flowing  toward  the  Mississippi  were  near 
streams  flowing  to  the  Great  Lakes.  Before  the  white  man  came, 
the  Indians  had  already  located  these  “portages,”  as  they  came 
to  be  called  (from  the  French  word  meaning  “to  carry”).  The 
canoes  were  paddled  as  far  as  possible  up  one  river  or  creek,  car- 
ried across  the  portage  to  another  flowing  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion, whence  they  proceeded  down  that  stream.  Waterways  were 
almost  the  only  highways,  and  the  light  canoe,  which  could  be 
carried  around  falls  and  rapids  or  from  one  stream  to  another, 
was  almost  the  only  means  of  traveling  or  carrying  goods  in  those 
early  days. 

In  1803  the  United  States  purchased  the  territory  of  Louisiana 
from  France  and  thus  secured  control  of  practically  the  entire 
Mississippi  basin.  Even  before  this  an  ever  increasing  num- 
ber of  pioneer  settlers  had  been  pouring  through  the  gaps  and 
passes  of  the  Appalachian  Mountains  into  the  West.  They  settled 
along  the  rivers,  raised  crops,  and  sought  markets  in  which  to 
sell  them.  But  nearly  all  these  streams  led  to  rivers  that  flowed, 
not  toward  the  east,  but  toward  the  Mississippi.  Hence  the  sur- 
plus wheat,  pork,  flour,  corn,  furs,  lead,  etc.,  produced  in  the  region 
west  of  the  Appalachians,  found  its  easiest  outlet  to  markets 
by  going  down  the  rivers  to  the  Mississippi  and  to  New  Orleans, 
whence  much  of  it  was  taken  to  cities  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard, 
to  Europe,  or  elsewhere.  It  was  a long,  roundabout  journey. 


HISTORIC  ASPECTS  OF  AMERICAN  RIVERS  143 


During  this  period  the  fiatboat  became  important.  It  was  a crudely 
built  affair,  perhaps  15  feet  wide  by  40  feet  long.  It  rose  but  little  above 
the  water,  and  its  broad,  flat  bottom  sank  but  little  below  the  surface.  It 
floated  downstream,  but  had  no  means  of  returning  against  the  current ; 
hence  it  was,  as  a rule,  broken  up  and  sold  for  wood  or  lumber  at  its  destina- 
tion, and  its  owners  returned  home  as  best  they  could.  Before  the  coming 
of  the  steamboat,  the  fiatboat  was  the  principal  means  of  moving  heavy 
freight  downstream.  The  upstream  traffic  was  small  and  was  mainly  carried 
in  keel  boats  and  barges  propelled  by  poles,  oars,  or  sails,  and  sometimes 
towed  by  ropes. 


Fig.  101.- — The  great  dam,  nearly  a mile  long,  across  the  Mississippi  River  at 
Keokuk,  Iowa.  In  the  distance  is  the  power  house  where  15  monster  dynamos 
generate  electricity  that  is  sent  to  surrounding  places,  including  St.  Louis,  144 
miles  away.  ( Courtesy  Miss.  R.  Power  Co.) 


Second  Period : The  Rise  of  Steamboat  Navigation,  — Steam- 
boats began  making  trips  on  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  soon  after 
1810,  and  their  coming  wrought  a mighty  change.  Then  up- 
stream traffic  as  well  as  better  downstream  traffic  became  pos- 
sible. Railroads  were  yet  unknown  and  good  highways  scarcely 
existed  ; rivers  were  still  all-important.  Our  western  rivers  prob- 
ably will  never  again  play  such  an  important  part  in  the  life  of 
the  nation  as  they  played  between  1820  and  1860.  The  coming 
of  the  steamboat  reduced  a week’s  journey  to  a day’s;  passenger 
and  freight  rates  gradually  fell  to  a quarter  of  their  former  level. 


144 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Farming  became  profitable  and  settlers  flocked  into  the  West 
by  thousands,  particularly  after  the  Erie  Canal  was  opened  in 


1825. 


New  Orleans  doubled  in  population  between  1830  and  1840.  In  1834 
there  were  230  steamboats  plying  our  western  rivers,  and  by  1850  there  were 
more  than  1200,  carrying  a commerce  of  over  $500,000,000  a year.  In  the 
years  between  1840  and  1850,  upwards  of  2000  steamboats  a year  arrived 
at  St.  Louis  and  from  4000  to  5000  passed  Cairo,  111.  This  was  the  high 


Fig.  102.  — Excursion  steamers  in  the  lock  at  the  Keokuk  dam,  Keokuk,  Iowa. 
By  means  of  this  lock,  boats  pass  the  great  dam  shown  in  Fig.  101.  ( Cour- 

tesy Miss.  R.  Power  Co.) 


tide  of  steamboat  navigation.  Rivers  carried  the  vast  majority  of  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  West.  In  1851,  97%  of  the  beef,  96%  of  the  corn,  and  97%  of  the 
flour  sent  from  Cincinnati  went  down  the  Ohio  by  boat.  The  wharves  of 
Pittsburgh,  Cincinnati,  Louisville,  St.  Louis,  Memphis,  and  New  Orleans 
were  thronged  with  river  craft.  Writing  of  this  period,  Miss  Ellen  Semple 
says  : “On  the  large,  elegantly  equipped  passenger  boats,  which  made  regular 
winter  trips  between  Cincinnati  or  St.  Louis  and  New  Orleans,  gay  social 
life  with  nightly  balls  gave  to  river  travel  on  the  Mississippi  a local  color 
such  as  it  acquired  nowhere  else.  Less  than  fifty  years  from  the  ripple  of 
the  fur-weighted  pirogue  ...  to  the  monotonous  splash  of  the  big  paddle 
wheel  and  the  floating  palace  with  its  fights,  music,  and  the  polished  society 
of  the  generous  Southland.” 


HISTORIC  ASPECTS  OF  AMERICAN  RIVERS  145 


Third  Period  : The  Decline  of  River  Navigation.  The  first 
railroads  in  the  United  States  were  built  as  early  as  1830.  The 
first  one  to  reach  the  upper  Mississippi  was  the  Chicago  and 
Rock  Island  in  1854.  Others  soon  followed  and  made  connections 
with  routes  to  the  eastern  states  where  western  produce  was  in 
demand.  The  Mississippi  and  its  branches  had  performed  a most 
valuable  service,  but  they  led  by  very  long  routes  to  eastern 
markets.  The  railroads,  crude  as  they  were  in  the  beginning, 
were  more  rapid  than  boats  and  led  either  directly  to  the  East  or 
to  water  routes  by  way  of  the  Great  Lakes  and  Erie  Canal.  The 
Civil  War  seriously  crippled  traffic  on  the  Mississippi  and  hastened 
the  decline  which  had  already  begun.  Year  by  year  steamboat 
owners  on  the  western  rivers  found  their  profits  diminishing ; as 
boats  became  old  they  were  abandoned  and  were  not  replaced ; 
many  were  destroyed  during  the  war. 

Steamboat  arrivals  at  St.  Louis  numbered  3626  in  1853  and  2800  in 
1870.  River  shipments  from  this  city  amounted  to  600,000  tons  in  1890, 
but  to  only  89,000  tons  in  1906,  while  shipments  by  rail  from  St.  Louis  rose 
from  5 million  to  17  million  tons  in  the  same  time.  Aside  from  coal  carried 
down  the  Ohio  to  the  Mississippi,  river  traffic  declined  to  a very  small  frac- 
tion of  its  former  magnitude. 

After  the  World  War,  the  United  States  Government  attempted 
to  restore  river  traffic  between  New  Orleans  and  St.  Louis.  Some 
40  steel  barges  and  10  tug  boats  were  operating  under  govern- 
ment contract  in  1921  and  a large  amount  of  freight  was  being 
carried. 

Reasons  for  the  Decline  of  River  Navigation. — 

1 . The  increased  efficiency  of  railroads 

2.  The  decline  in  railroad  freight  rates  from  1860  to  1900 

3.  The  effort  of  railroads  to  destroy  river  traffic 

4.  The  public  demand  for  swifter  and  more  certain  service 
than  rivers  afforded 

5.  The  cost  of  keeping  rivers  dredged  and  otherwise  improved 
to  meet  modern  needs 

The  waterways  problem  is  one  of  the  great  questions  before 
the  American  people.  Shall  we  expend  millions  of  dollars  annually 


140 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


in  an  effort  to  make  and  keep  rivers  navigable?  There  are  argu- 
ments on  both  sides.  What  our  government’s  policy  in  this 
particular  should  be  is  far  from  clear.  The  millions  that  we  have 
been  spending  yearly  on  our  rivers  have  not  checked  the  decline 
in  their  use.  Rivers  vary  enormously  in  volume,  the  Mississippi 
at  Cairo  sometimes  rising  50  feet.  They  are  constantly  silting 
up  their  channels ; this  is  especially  true  of  the  Missouri  and  lower 
Mississippi.  Our  largest  rivers  do  not  flow  in  the  direction  re- 
quired  by  the  principal  movements  of  trade.  The  government’s 
method  of  making  river  improvements  is  costly  and  unsystematic. 
Our  past  experience  causes  some  people  to  doubt  the  wisdom  of 
continuing  a policy  of  river  improvement  that  will  call  for  hun- 
dreds of  millions  of  dollars,  but  others  believe  such  a policy  to  be 
desirable. 

The  Great  Lakes  as  a Commercial  Waterway 

Character  of  the  Waterway.  — The  Great  Lakes  are  the  leading 
inland  waterway  of  the  country  because  : 

1 . They  are  deep  enough  for  boats  of  great  size  ; 

2.  They  extend  east  and  west,  the  direction  of  the  heaviest 
freight  movement ; 

3.  They  are  in  a region  that  has  a large  population  and  sup- 
plies an  enormous  tonnage  of  iron  ore,  coal,  and  grain ; 

4.  They  require  comparatively  little  outlay  for  maintenance. 

Niagara  Falls  form  the  most  important  obstruction  in  this  route, 

but  they  may  be  passed  by  the  Welland  Canal  in  Canada,  which 
is  being  enlarged.  This  canal  is  much  used  by  Canadian  but 
little  by  American  vessels  (Fig.  92).  So  far  as  American  traffic 
is  concerned  the  Great  Lakes  waterway  practically  ends  at  Buf- 
falo. The  many  locks  in  the  Welland  Canal  make  passage  slow. 
Tolls  are  charged,  and  the  United  States  has  no  important  port 
on  Lake  Ontario  or  the  St.  Lawrence. 

Between  Lake  Superior  and  Lake  Huron  are  the  St.  Marys 
Falls  or  Rapids  (usually  referred  to  as  Sault  Sainte  Marie  or  “the 
Soo”).  Around  these  are  three  canals,  one  belonging  to  Canada 
and  two  to  the  United  States. 


HISTORIC  ASPECTS  OF  AMERICAN  RIVERS  147 


The  chief  drawback  to  this  great  waterway  is  the  fact  that  it 
is  closed  by  ice  during  the  five  cold  months  of  each  year.  For 
many  years  the  Erie  Canal  formed  a very  important  connection 
between  the  Lakes  and  the  Atlantic,  but  this  waterway  declined 
with  the  increased  use  of  railroads.  The  enlarged  Erie  Canal, 
often  called  the  New  York  Barge  Canal,  has  not  yet  shown 
whether  or  not  it  will  be  an  important  waterway. 

Present  Traffic  on  the  Lakes.  — The  wonderfully  rich  iron  ores 
mined  around  Lake  Superior  supply  over  60  per  cent  of  the  freight 


Fig.  103.  — Enormous  grain  elevator  at  Superior,  Wisconsin,  at  the  head  of  Lake 

Superior. 


carried  on  the  Lakes.  Specially  designed  steel  steamships  of  great 
size,  500  to  700  feet  long  and  carrying  as  high  as  15,000  tons  of  ore, 
ply  between  ports  at  the  head  of  Lake  Superior  and  cities  on  Lake 
Michigan  and  Lake  Erie.  The  tonnage  of  freight  passing  through 
the  St.  Marys  canals  rose  from  a little  over  a million  tons  in  1880 
to  80  million  tons  in  1920.  The  tonnage  (not  value)  of  freight 
which  passes  through  the  Detroit  River  in  seven  months  is  about 
five  times  as  great  as  that  which  passes  through  the  Suez 
Canal  in  a year.  The  tonnage  of  the  vessels  on  the  Great  Lakes 
is  20  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  vessels  navigating  all  the  riv- 
ers of  the  Mississippi  system,  and  was  about  double  that  of  Ameri- 


148 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


can  vessels  on  the  ocean  engaged  in  our  foreign  trade  prior  to 
1917. 

The  freight  rate  on  ore  and  coal  before  the  World  War  was  very 
low,  sometimes  as  low  as  one-twentieth  of  a cent  a ton  per  mile ; 
yet  the  big  ore-carrying  boats  earned  upwards  of  81000  a day. 
They  make  the  round  trip  between  Duluth  or  Superior  and  Lake 
Erie  ports  in  about  a week. 

Importance  to  the  Steel  Industry.  — It  happens  that  our  greatest 
iron  mines  (near  Lake  Superior)  are  situated  nearly  a thousand 


Fig.  104.  — Map  showing  the  comparative  potential  water  power  in  the  nine 

groups  of  states. 


miles  from  the  mines  which  yield  the  best  coal  for  making  coke  (in 
western  Pennsylvania).  Before  the  iron  ore  can  be  smelted,  the 
ore  and  coke  must  be  brought  together.  The  lake  steamers  carry 
a ton  of  coal  or  iron  ore  a thousand  miles  for  less  than  the  charge 
of  hauling  it  a hundred  miles  by  rail. 

Growth  of  Cities  on  the  Mississippi  and  on  the  Great  Lakes. — 
The  commercial  decline  of  the  Mississippi  and  the  rise  of  the  Great 


HISTORIC  ASPECTS  OP  AMERICAN  RIVERS  149 


Lakes  as  a waterway  are  strikingly  illustrated  by  the  fact  that 
while  the  six  leading  cities  on  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  gained 
about  325,000  population  from  1910  to  1920,  the  six  leading  cities 
on  the  Great  Lakes  waterway  gained  1,620,000  in  the  same  period. 

Rivers  as  Sources  of  Power 

The  Use  of  Water  Power,  Past  and  Present. — Until  electricity 
came  into  use,  water  power  could  be  employed  only  at  the  actual 
place  where  it  existed.  Now  it  may  be  converted  into  an  electric 
current  and  conveyed  scores  or  even  hundreds  of  miles.  Most  of 


} \ B*r60<'/-sy///e  f/ 


ws'onf 


\Abingfon 


oHuntsw/ip 


dAlentmr^ 


warm 


Wartburg 

KnoxvMp 


■V’*  Boone 


Yjewerv/h 


'/mouthy 


fMocksvilh 


Albemarle*. 


lersonvilfe 


o Murphy1 


\Kenansw//e 


il^y\mnroe 


*>Laine$vL 


J/pPare/td 


Wnrisbi 


COU/MBIA 


Madison 


Fig.  105.  — Locations  of  important  water  powers  in  the  Carolinas.  Squares  in- 
dicate power  owned  by  manufacturers,  and  circles  power  owned  by  water  power 
companies.  A great  deal  of  this  power  is  used  by  the  cotton  mills.  (17.  S. 
Comr.  of  Corp.,  1912.) 


the  great  water  power  plants  installed  in  recent  years  are  hydro- 
electric plants,  or  those  which  convert  the  water  power  into  elec- 
tricity. Such  are  the  great  power  houses  at  Niagara  Falls,  at  Keo- 
kuk on  the  Mississippi  (Fig.  100),  at  Great  Falls,  Mont.,  and  at 
various  places  in  Colorado,  Washington,  California,  the  Southern 
Appalachians,  and  elsewhere. 

Many  mills  and  factories,  especially  in  the  eastern  states,  are 
still  situated  close  beside  the  rivers  at  points  where  the  falls  or 
rapids  occur,  and  their  machinery  is  driven  directly  from  the  re- 


150 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


volving  water  wheels.  New  England’s  early  start  in  manufactur- 
ing was  greatly  aided  by  abundant  water  power,  and  many  of  her 
leading  cities  are  located  at  water  power  sites.  The  banks  of  the 
Merrimac  in  southern  New  Hampshire  and  Massachusetts  are 
dotted  with  mills.  Fall  River,  Mass,  (cotton) ; Holyoke,  Mass, 
(paper) ; Paterson,  N.  J.  (silk) ; Rochester,  N.  Y.  (flour) ; Grand 
Rapids,  Mich,  (furniture) ; Minneapolis,  Minn,  (flour) ; and  a 
long  list  of  other  places  belong  to  the  group  of  water  power  cities. 


Fig.  106.  — The  mauy  important  water  powers  of  New  England  and  New  York. 
Squares  indicate  power  owned  by  manufacturers,  and  circles  power  owned  by 
water  power  companies.  (U.  S.  Comr.  of  Cory.,  1912.) 


Development  of  Water  Power  in  the  South.  — The  swift  streams 
of  the  Southern  Appalachians  are  being  harnessed  for  manufactur- 
ing purposes,  notably  for  the  making  of  cotton  goods.  Along  the 
east-flowing  streams  in  North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and 
Georgia,  and  to  a smaller  extent  on  the  western  side  of  the  Appa- 
lachians in  Tennessee  and  Alabama,  mills  and  factories  have  been 
built  in  large  numbers.  One-third  of  our  cotton  spindles  are  in 
this  region  (Fig.  105). 


HISTORIC  ASPECTS  OF  AMERICAN-  RIVERS  151 


Water  Power  and  the  Manufacture  of  Paper.  — Most  of  our 
paper  is  made  from  wood  pulp.  A great  amount  of  cheap 
power  is  needed  in  this  industry  and  so  the  chief  paper-mak- 
ing centers  are  in  the  northern  parts  of  New  England,  New 
York,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin,  where  swift  rivers  and  forests  of 
spruce  and  other  soft  woods  were  found  near  together  (Fig. 
106). 


Western  Rivers 

Important  Western  Rivers.  — The  Columbia  and  Snake  rivers 
and  their  branches  form  the  drainage  system  of  our  Pacific  North- 
west. Into  the  great  lava  plateau  these  rivers  have  cut  canons 
from  a thousand  to  two  thousand  feet  in  depth.  By  means  of 
locks  at  two  points  the  Columbia  has  been  made  navigable  for 
400  miles  from  its  mouth.  Ocean  vessels  ascend  the  Columbia 
and  Willamette  110  miles  to  Portland.  The  Salmon  fisheries  of 
the  Columbia  River  and  the  Colorado  with  its  wonderful  canon 
are  described  elsewhere.  Portions  of  the  Sacramento  and  of 
the  San  Joaquin  in  California,  a short  lower  stretch  of  the 
Colorado,  and  a long  stretch  of  the  upper  Missouri  are  classed  as 
navigable  rivers,  but,  with  the  exception  of  the  Sacramento,  they 
are  little  used. 

Character  of  the  Western  Rivers.  — Of  the  26,000  miles  of 
navigable  rivers  in  the  United  States,  only  2000  miles  are  in  the 
western  half  of  the  country.  There  are  seven  western  states  that 
contain  no  navigable  rivers.  For  reasons  to  be  explained  later, 
the  rainfall  over  these  states  is  small,  except  along  the  coast  north 
from  San  Francisco,  and  on  the  higher  mountains,  most  of  which 
collect  a good  deal  of  snow.  Many  of  the  rivers  flow  long  distances 
through  arid  regions  and  lose  a considerable  part  of  their  water  by 
seepage  and  evaporation,  and  in  late  summer  they  may  dwindle 
to  mere  creeks.  The  Rio  Grande,  for  example,  in  certain  places 
almost  disappears  for  miles,  flowing  in  the  gravel  of  its  bed. 
After  heavy  rains  in  the  mountains  or  when  the  snows  are  melt- 
ing, the  mountain  streams  become  torrents  and  sweep  down  their 


152 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


[ hH&zru 


Weavervi/fi 


wirmemlxta 


f^OahRun 


lletowr 


■ r re  mil 

I Reno 


'iKkee 


'dhon 


Pioch *60 


Fig.  107.  — Water  power  development  in  California.  The  circles  represent 
hydro-electric  power  plants  that  sell  power.  The  squares  represent  plants  that 
use  power  directly  for  manufacturing  purposes.  (£/.  S.  Comr.  of  Corp.,  1912.) 


courses  with  terrific  violence,  carrying  everything  before  them; 
but  at  other  times  they  may  become  almost  dry. 


HISTORIC  ASPECTS  OF  AMERICAN  RIVERS  153 


Irrigation 

The  Growth  of  Irrigation  in  the  United  States.  — Irrigation  is 

one  of  the  oldest  devices  of  civilized  man ; it  was  practiced  in 
ancient  Egypt,  India,  Mesopotamia,  China,  and  among  certain 
tribes  of  American  Indians.  The  first  Americans  to  use  irrigation 
in  the  West  were  the  Mormons,  who  entered  Utah  in  the  forties, 


while  that  region  still  belonged  to  Mexico.  In  the  last  quarter 
century  its  use  has  spread  into  hundreds  of  our  western  valleys. 
The  progress  from  the  first  simple  irrigation  dams  and  canals  of 
the  early  settlers  to  the  great  masonry  dams  and  canals  con- 
structed by  the  United  States  Government  makes  a remarkable 
story  (Fig.  108). 


Fig.  108.  — The  Roosevelt  dam  in  Arizona.  By  means  of  this  dam  a lake  is  pro- 
duced which  stores  enough  water  to  irrigate  170,000  acres  of  land. 


154 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  109.  — Irrigation  canal  in  Idaho.  A main  canal  of  this  kind,  shown  at  the  left,  conducts  the  water  from  an  up-river 
point  to  the  lands  that  are  to  be  irrigated.  (U.  S ■ Ben.  Service.) 


HISTORIC  ASPECTS  OF  AMERICAN  RIVERS  155 


Extent  and  Methods  of  Irrigation.  — In  many  of  the  western 
valleys  the  land  is  rich  in  plant  food,  and  sunshine  is  abundant,  but 
rainfall  is  inadequate.  The  larger  part  of  the  land  of  eleven  west- 
ern states  cannot  grow  crops  without  irrigation.  In  1921  about 
15  million  acres,  an  area  half  as  large  as  New  York,  was  under 
irrigation.  This  exceeds  the  cultivated,  area  of  Massachusetts, 
Connecticut,  Vermont,  Rhode  Island,  New  Jersey,  and  Delaware 


Fig.  110.  — Irrigated  fruit  lands  in  the  Grand  Valley  of  Colorado.  ( U . S.  Rec. 

Service.) 


combined,  yet  it  is  less  than  3 per  cent  of  the  arid  land  of  the 
West.  Most  of  the  irrigating  is  accomplished  by  building  dams 
which  hold  the  flood  waters  in  reservoirs  to  be  used  during  the 
dry  summer.  By  means  of  main  canals,  branch  canals,  and 
ditches,  this  water  is  distributed  over  the  valley  lands  (Fig.  109). 
In  a few  states,  mainly  in  California,  water  from  wells  (about 
20,000  in  all)  is  used. 


156  HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 

The  great  majority  of  the  fifty  or  sixty  thousand  irrigation 
enterprises  in  the  United  States  include  only  a few  hundred  acres 
each,  but  some  of  the  private  enterprises,  and  all  of  the  United 
States  Reclamation  projects  (about  30),  include  thousands  of 
acres  each,  a few  of  them  exceeding  200,000  acres,  equal  to  a 
small  county. 

The  less  expensive  projects  have  been  established  by  individual 


Fig.  111.  — Irrigated  lands  in  the  Santa  Clara  Valley  of  California.  {XJ.  S. 

Geol.  Sur.) 

farmers  or  groups  of  farmers  or  by  irrigation  companies,  but  large 
projects  costing  millions  of  dollars  have  been  carried  out  by  the 
government  through  the  Reclamation  Service ; yet  a great  deal 
more  land  is  irrigated  by  private  individuals  and  corporations 
than  by  the  United  States  Government  through  the  Reclamation 
Service. 

Irrigation  Farming.  — Undoubtedly  irrigation  farming  has  many 
attractions.  The  farms  or  ranches  are  usually  small  and  care- 


HISTORIC  ASPECTS  OF  AMERICAN  RIVERS  157 


fully  cultivated,  and  weather  conditions  are  more  dependable 
than  in  a humid  climate.  The  people  who  have  settled  on  the 
irrigated  lands  are  progressive,  and  social  conditions  are  usually 
excellent.  Orchards  and  vineyards  of  10  or  20  acres,  when  suc- 
cessfully managed,  may  yield  their  owners  as  much  profit  as  160- 
acre  farms  in  the  Middle  West  or  East.  While  such  instances 
are  numerous,  they  show  what  is  possible  rather  than  what  is 
common ; indeed,  only  about  one-twentieth  of  the  irrigated  land 
is  devoted  to  fruit;  more  than  three-fourths  produces  grain,  hay, 
and  alfalfa ; to  the  last-named  crop  nearly  one-third  of  all  our 
irrigated  land  is  devoted. 


EXERCISE  XI 

Suggestion.  — It  is  suggested  that  pupils  prepare  to  discuss  the  foregoing 
chapter  by  the  topical  method,  using  the  following  topics : 

1.  The  importance  of  rivers  in  the  exploration  and  settlement  of  North 
America 

2.  Early  methods  of  travel  and  transportation  in  the  United  States 

3.  Dependence  of  the  fur  trade  on  rivers 

4.  The  importance  of  rivers  to  agriculture  in  the  American  colonies 

5.  Rivers  and  early  manufacturing 

6.  The  historic  and  economic  importance  of  the  St.  Lawrence  system 

(a)  Early  history 

( b ) Importance  to  Canadian  commerce 

(c)  Physical  features  of  the  St.  Lawrence 

7.  The  Mississippi  River 

(a)  Features  of  the  upper  Mississippi 

(b)  Features  of  the  lower  Mississippi 
The  natural  levees 

8.  The  problem  of  controlling  the  river 

9.  Principal  tributaries  of  the  Mississippi 

(a)  The  Ohio  : its  past  and  present  usefulness 

( b ) The  Missouri 

(c)  The  Arkansas  and  the  Red 

10.  The  navigation  of  the  Mississippi : three  periods 

(a)  The  period  of  the  canoe  and  flatboat 

(b)  The  rise  of  steamboat  navigation 

(c)  The  decline  of  river  navigation 

11.  Reasons  for  the  decline  of  river  navigation 

12.  The  waterways  problem 

13.  The  Great  Lakes  as  a commercial  waterway 

(a)  Character  of  the  waterway 

(b)  Present  traffic  : its  great  volume  and  low  cost 


158 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


(c)  Importance  to  the  steel  industry 

14.  Rivers  as  sources  of  power 

(а)  The  use  of  water  power  past  and  present 

(б)  The  development  of  water  power  in  the  South 
(c)  Water  power  and  the  manufacture  of  paper 

15.  Important  western  rivers 

16.  Character  of  the  western  rivers 

17.  Irrigation 

(a)  Growth  of  irrigation  in  the  United  States 

( b ) Extent  and  methods  of  irrigation 

(c)  Irrigation  farming 


CHAPTER  IX 


SIX  OF  THE  WORLD’S  GREAT  RIVERS1 

The  Amazon  and  Brazil 


Size.  — The  Amazon  is  the  monarch  of  rivers.  Though  not 
quite  so  long  as  the  Mississippi-Missouri,  its  basin  is  much  larger, 


and  it  pours  into  the  ocean  a much  greater  volume  of  water. 
Rising  in  the  lofty  Andes  within  a hundred  miles  of  the  Pacific, 

1 Large  American  rivers  are  described  in  Chapter  VIII.  This  chapter  is  de- 
signed for  reading  rather  than  for  careful  study. 

159 


160 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


it  flows  in  a course  nearly  4000  miles  long  into  the  Atlantic.  No 
other  river  cuts  its  continent  so  nearly  in  two. 

For  almost  its  entire  length  the  Amazon  flows  near  the 
equator  and  parallel  to  it ; thus  it  is  in  a region  where  the  rainfall 
is  very  heavy.  Over  the  larger  part  of  the  basin  the  rainfall 
amounts  to  from  6 to  8 feet  (72  to  96  inches)  per  year,  and 
much  of  the  land  is  so  low  and  flat  that  at  times  of  flood  vast 
areas  are  under  water. 

The  great  river  does  not  flow  in  a single  channel,  but  is  like 
a braid  of  many  strands.  There  are  so  many  islands  and  so 
many  channels  that  the  traveler  almost  never  sees  the  whole 
width  of  the  mighty  river.  Near  its  mouth  it  becomes  a hundred 
miles  wide,  and  from  the  middle  neither  bank  can  be  seen. 

Important  Features.  — 

1.  The  great  size  of  its  basin.  The  Amazon  drains  an  area 
larger  than  that  of  all  Europe  outside  of  Russia. 

2.  Its  enormous  volume  of  water.  It  pours  more  water  into 
the  Atlantic  than  all  the  rivers  from  Alaska  to  Cape  Horn  pour 
into  the  Pacific.  So  powerful  is  the  current  that  it  forces  its  yellow 
waters  200  miles  out  into  the  ocean. 

3.  Its  exceedingly  slight  grade.  On  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Andes  the  headwater  streams  make  terrific  plunges,  but  in  the  final 
2000  miles  of  its  course  the  Amazon  falls  only  35  feet,  an  average 
of  two-tenths  of  an  inch  to  the  mile.  Contrast  this  with  the 
St.  Lawrence,  which  falls  250  feet  in  its  lower  course  in  a 
tenth  of  this  distance.  No  other  great  river  has  such  a gentle 
gradient. 

4.  Its  great  depth.  It  is  only  by  constant  dredging  of  the 
Mississippi  that  a channel  9 feet  deep  is  maintained  between  the 
mouth  of  the  Ohio  and  New  Orleans.  The  Amazon  has  an  average 
depth  of  100  feet  or  more  for  a greater  distance  than  this,  and  from 
the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Negro  to  the  sea  the  river  is  about  200  feet 
deep.  Ocean  steamships  ascend  2300  miles  to  Iquitos  in  Peru, 
and  steamers  drawing  14  feet  of  water  may  ascend  480  miles 
farther.  No  other  large  river  of  the  world  even  approaches  such 
depth  for  such  a distance. 


SIX  OF  THE  WORLD’S  GREAT  RIVERS 


161 


Fig.  113.  — Vegetation  of  the  hot,  wet  Amazon  jungle.  ( Courtesy  Isaiah  Bow * 
man,  Am.  Geog.  Soc.) 


5.  The  great  number  and  size  of  its  tributaries.  Fourteen  of 
these  are  as  long  as  the  Rhine  or  longer,  and  of  much  greater 
volume,  and  at  least  one  is  as  long  as  the  Mississippi. 

The  Amazon  Jungle.  — The  larger  portion  of  the  Amazon  basin 
is  a vast,  uncultivated,  almost  unpeopled  wilderness.  There  are 


162 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


great  stretches  of  morass  in  which  the  dense  tropical  forest  is  woven 
together  by  a tangle  of  undergrowth  and  vines  looping  from  tree 
to  tree  or  hanging  from  every  limb.  The  Amazon  forests  form 
one  of  the  most  impenetrable  jungles  found  anywhere  in  the  world, 
and  if  it  were  not  for  the  rubber  trees  most  of  the  wilderness  would 
still  be  little  known  to  the  outside  world  (Fig.  113). 

Comparison  of  the  Amazon  and  Mississippi  Valleys.  — The  Ama- 
zon basin  is  an  impressive  example  of  the  way  in  which . a bad 
climate  may  almost  completely  block  the  development  of  a re- 
gion. Aside  from  climate  and  the  consequences  of  climate,  the 
basin  of  the  Mississippi  is  not  unlike  that  of  the  Amazon ; yet  one 
teems  with  prosperous  and  progressive  people,  is  dotted  with  cities, 
crisscrossed  by  railroads,  and  sprinkled  with  churches,  schools, 
colleges,  and  libraries ; both  its  agricultural  and  manufactured 
products  are  measured  in  billions  of  dollars  a year ; the  other  has 
not  a single  large  city ; 1 in  most  of  its  area  there  is  not  a mile  of 
road  or  railroad,  not  a mill  or  factory,  not  a school  or  church,  not 
a cultivated  farm  or  a white  man’s  permanent  home.  The  state 
of  Amazonas  contains  an  average  of  only  about  one  person  to  three 
square  miles. 

In  the  four  hundred  years  since  Europeans  penetrated  the 
Amazon  Valley  little  progress  has  been  made  there,  but  the  valley 
of  the  Mississippi,  on  the  contrary,  has  had  a phenomenal  develop- 
ment. What  caused  the  difference?  The  answer  lies  mainly  in 
the  single  word,  climate.  This  is  an  example  of  geographical 
influence  that  is  worth  remembering.  Just  a difference  in  the 
angle  of  the  sun’s  rays  and  in  the  amount  of  rain  that  falls, 
and  one  valley  is  a tropical  jungle  while  the  other  is  the  home  of 
millions  of  progressive  people  and  the  heart  of  the  world’s  richest 
nation ! 

Navigation.  — The  Amazon  and  its  tributaries  are  constantly 
used  for  navigation.  Practically  all  of  the  products  of  its  basin, 
rubber,  cabinet  woods,  Brazil  nuts,  and  cacao,  reach  the  outer  world 
by  way  of  the  river,  and  all  of  the  supplies  are  carried  in  by  the  same 
route.  Regular  lines  of  steamers  ply  up  and  down  the  river  and 
1 Manaos,  the  chief  city,  had  a population  of  about  50,000. 


SIX  OF  THE  WORLD’S  GREAT  RIVERS 


163 


its  chief  tributaries.  Ocean-going  steamships  load  at  Iquitos  or 
Manaos,  the  chief  cities  of  the  interior,  and  proceed  directly  to 
ports  of  the  United  States  and  Europe.  Smaller  boats  visit  the 
rubber-collecting  centers  on  the  many  rivers,  and  carry  the  rubber 
to  Manaos  or  to  Para  (population  100,000)  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river ; moreover,  a part  of  the  products  of  Bolivia  and  Peru  reach 
the  outer  world  by  way  of  the  Amazon.  The  Madeira,  one  of  the 
great  tributaries,  has  a series  of  13  falls  and  rapids  around  which  a 
railroad  200  miles  long  has  been  built. 

A peculiar  condition  exists  at  the  headwaters  of  a branch  of 
the  Amazon  and  a branch  of  the  Orinoco  : the  two  rivers  are  united 
by  a stream  of  considerable  size  (the  Casiquiare),  and  at  high 
water  small  boats  may  pass  from  one  of  these  great  river  systems 
to  the  other. 


The  Rhine  and  Germany 

Importance  to  Germany.  — The  Rhine  is  the  most  historic  of 
European  rivers.  From  the  days  of  Julius  Caesar  down  through 
the  struggles  of  the  Middle  Ages  to  the  present,  the  valley  of  the 
Rhine  has  been  the  scene  of  stirring  events.  It  has  been  for  more 
than  a thousand  years  the  principal  link  in  the  great  north-south 
road  across  Europe,  uniting  the  Mediterranean  with  the  North  Sea 
and  the  Baltic.  More  myths  and  songs  and  legends  are  associated 
with  the  Rhine  than  with  any  other  part  of  the  German  Father- 
land.  The  historic  river  is  singularly  woven  into  the  affections 
and  patriotism  of  the  German  people. 

Physical  Features.  — Though  only  800  miles  in  length  the 
Rhine  rises  in  one  country,  flows  across  a second,  and  enters  the  sea 
through  a third.  Its  headwaters  are  collected  from  lakes  and 
glaciers  of  the  Alps.  Flowing  through  the  beautiful  Lake  Con- 
stance, it  reaches  the  Swiss  frontier  at  the  city  of  Basel , Of  the  233 
miles  in  Switzerland  very  little  is  navigable  even  for  small  boats 
(Fig.  114). 

Betiveen  Basel  and  Bingen  (224  miles)  the  Rhine  winds  over  a 
flood  plain  20  miles  in  width.  Through  part  of  this  distance 


164 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  114.  — The  turbulent  Rhine  near  the  place  where  it  crosses  the  Swiss  bound- 
ary into  Germany.  ( Courtesy  W.  H.  Dudley.) 

the  river  forms  the  boundary  between  Germany  and  France.  For 
more  than  a hundred  years,  the  cities  and  provinces  along  this 
section  of  the  Rhine  have  been  engaged  in  straightening  the  river, 
building  embankments  and  walls  to  check  its  overflow,  and  nar- 
rowing it  here  and  there  to  concentrate  its  current  and  prevent 
silting.  By  cutting  across  the  necks  of  the  great  meanders,  the 
river  has  been  shortened  45  miles  in  this  portion  (Fig.  116).  The 
navigation  of  this  part  of  the  river  is  mainly  confined  to  the  stretch 
below  Mannheim. 

Between  the  cities  of  Bingen  and  Bonn  the  river  traverses  an 
ancient  plateau.  This  portion,  79  miles  in  length,  forms  the 
famous  and  romantic  “Gorge  of  the  Rhine.”  Flere  the  valley  is 
narrow,  and  the  valley  walls  rise  steeply ; at  nearly  every  curve 
a frowning  height,  topped  by  the  ruins  of  an  old  castle,  commands 
the  river  (Fig.  117).  Many  of  the  steep  slopes  are  terraced  for 
vineyards.  Cities  find  room  for  growth  only  at  places  where  a 


SIX  OF  THE  WORLD’S  GREAT  RIVERS 


165 


Fig.  115.  — A part  of  western  Europe.  Rhone  Valley  at  the  lower  left;  Alps 
at  the  lower  right ; Rhine  Valley  at  the  right ; Holland  and  the  Rhine  delta  at 
the  top. 

tributary  stream  joins  the  main  stream,  and  railroads  hug  the  river 
on  both  sides,  finding  scarcely  room  enough  for  their  tracks. 


166 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Midway  down  the  gorge,  the  river  Moselle  comes  in  from 
France. 

Northward  from  Bonn  the  Rhine  crosses  the  flat  North  German 
Plain,  passes  a succession  of  great  industrial  cities  and  enters  Hol- 
land, a large  part  of  which  is 
made  up  of  the  Rhine  delta. 
Across  Holland  the  river  flows 
in  a winding,  sluggish  course, 
and  enters  the  sea  through 
many  mouths. 

The  Rhine  in  the  Middle 
Ages.  — In  the  Middle  Ages 
there  were  two  important 
groups  of  commercial  cities  — 
one  group  in  Italy,  including 
Venice  and  Genoa ; the  other, 
the  scattered  and  powerful 
group  known  as  the  Hanseatic 
League,  the  most  important  of 
which  were  near  the  shores  of 
the  Baltic  and  North  seas.  Be- 
tween these  two  regions  the 
easiest  route  was  the  valley  of 
the  Rhine,  and  along  that  river 
moved  the  most  valuable  over- 
land trade  of  Europe.  Scores 
of  petty  nobles  had  their  little 
realms  along  the  Rhine  and  its 
tributaries,  and  at  every  com- 
manding point  some  feudal 
built  his  castle  and 
toll  ” on  passing  mer- 
chants and  travelers.  These 
were  the  robber  barons  of  the 
still  overlook  the  river  (Fig. 


Fig.  116. — Section  of  the  Rhine  Rive’ 

The  black  lines  indicate  the  former  baron 
very  crooked  course  of  the  river ; the 
straightened  line  shows  the  present  im 
proved  channel. 


Rhine,  whose  ruined  castles 
118). 


SIX  OF  THE  WORLD’S  GREAT  RIVERS 


167 


On  an  average,  merchandise  doubled  in  cost  for  every  hundred 
miles  it  proceeded  along  these  toll-afflicted  routes.  Even  as  late  as 
1790,  there  were  29  legalized  toll  stations  between  Strassburg  and 
the  border  of  Holland ; and  in  the  early  part  of  the  nineteenth 
century  every  laden  boat  that  passed  Cologne  or  Mainz  had  to 


Fig.  117.  — One  of  the  many  ruined  castles  on  the  heights  overlooking  the  Rhine. 
{Courtesy  W.  H.  Dudley.) 


unload  its  cargo  and  display  it  for  sale  in  those  cities.  It  was  a 
long,  bitter  struggle  that  made  the  trade  of  the  Rhine  safe  and  free, 
and  that  struggle  did  not  end  until  1868. 

The  Rhine  of  the  Twentieth  Century.  — After  the  union  of  the 
many  German  states  into  the  German  Empire,  great  sums  of  money 
were  expended  upon  the  Rhine.  It  was  shortened  by  straightening 
curves  (Fig.  116),  rocky  shoals  and  obstructions  were  blasted  out, 
shallow  portions  were  dredged,  and  nearly  every  city  along  the  river 
built  havens  and  docks  equipped  with  modern  loading  and  unload- 


168 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


ing  machinery.  Below  Cologne  the  navigable  depth  is  nearly  10 
feet,  between  Cologne  and  St.  Goar  it  is  8 feet,  and  from  St.  Goar 
to  Mannheim  it  is  6-g-  feet. 

Prior  to  the  World  War  the  Rhine  fleet  consisted  of  more  than 
10,000  steamboats  and  barges.  Passenger  steamers  ply  con- 
stantly from  city  to  city.  Steam  tugs  tow  a train  of  three  or 


Fig.  118.  — 


The  restored  castle  Rheinstein,  below  Bingen  on  the  Rhine.  ( Cour- 
tesy W.  H.  Dudley.) 


four  barges  (Fig.  120),  carrying  from  a few  hundred  tons  to  3000 
tons  each.  As  would  be  expected,  the  commodities  carried 
by  water  are  mainly  coal,  iron  ore,  stone,  cement,  grain,  and 
other  heavy  articles.  The  tonnage  of  freight  carried  on  German 
waterways  was  very  large,  and,  on  the  whole,  the  cost  was  fairly  low. 

The  Rhine  flows  through  one  of  the  most  densely  populated  and 
productive  regions  of  Europe.  There  are  no  less  than  20  important 
cities  along  the  river  or  directly  tributary  to  it ; great  coal  mines 


SIX  OF  THE  WORLD’S  GREAT  RIVERS 


169 


and  iron  mines  are  near  by,  and  its  mouths  reach  three  world 
ports  — Antwerp,  Rotterdam,  and  Amsterdam.  A network  of 
canals  connects  the  Rhine  with  the  Seine  in  France,  with  the  Dan- 
ube, and  with  the  Elbe  and  other  German  rivers.  The  fact  that 
the  mouth  of  the  Rhine  is  controlled  by  a foreign  power  and  that 
the  great  ports  which  serve  the  Rhine  are  in  foreign  territory  is, 


Fig.  119.  — A characteristic  scene  in  Holland.  A large  part  of  the  land  of  Hol- 
land is  included  in  the  delta  of  the  Rhine.  ( Courtesy  W . H.  Dudley.) 

of  course,  a disadvantage  to  Germany.  The  defeat  of  Germany  in 
the  great  World  War  has  completely  changed  her  relations  to  the 
Rhine,  which  can  scarcely  be  called  a German  river  any  longer.  By 
the  terms  of  the  treaty  of  peace  Germany  is  forbidden  to  build  or 
maintain  fortifications  or  to  keep  armed  forces  nearer  than  50 
kilometers  (about  31  miles)  from  the  east  bank  of  the  Rhine.  She 
no  longer  controls  the  river  even  in  her  own  territory,  for  it  is 
placed  in  the  hands  of  an  international  commission  and  Allied 
troops  may  hold  the  German  territory  west  of  the  river  for  fifteen 
years. 


170 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  120.  — The  middle  Rhine.  Note  the  long  narrow  barges  towed  by  a steam 
tug.  A great  deal  of  freight  is  carried  by  these  Rhine  boats.  ( Courtesy  W.  H. 
Dudley.) 


The  Volga  and  Russia 

Physical  Features.  — The  Volga  is  the  longest  river  of  Europe, 
as  well  as  Russia’s  most  important  waterway,  but  its  volume  is  less 
than  that  of  the  Danube.  It  is  2300  miles  long,  equal  to  the 
distance  from  Boston  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and  navigable  for 
2000  miles.  Russia  is  very  poorly  supplied  with  roads  and  rail- 
roads, and  its  rivers,  like  those  of  the  United  States  at  an  earlier 
period,  have  been  important  avenues  of  transportation.  Time 
does  not  count  so  much  in  Russia  as  it  does  in  the  United  States, 
and  slow-moving  river  craft  are  quite  satisfactory. 

Unlike  most  large  rivers,  the  Volga  does  not  rise  in  mountains  or 
flow  even  in  sight  of  mountains.  It  begins  in  one  of  the  greatest  of 
the  Russian  swamps  at  the  low  elevation  of  600  feet  above  sea  level, 


SIX  OF  THE  WORLD’S  GREAT  RIVERS 


171 


Fig.  121.  — Bridge  over  the  Rhine  at  Bonn.  ( Courtesy  W . H.  Dudley.) 


flows  in  a crooked  course  through  a vast  plain,  and  empties  into  an 
inland  lake,  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  has  one  notable  peculiarity, — for 
a large  part  of  its  course,  it  cuts  against  the  right  bank,  producing 
earth  cliffs  of  considerable  height,  while  the  left  bank  is  low  and 
easily  flooded.  This  gives  rise  to  a peculiar  distribution  of  cities 
and  towns ; in  the  lower  three-fifths  of  its  course  there  are  only  four 
important  towns  on  the  left  bank  (east),  but  over  thirty  on  the 
right  bank  (Fig.  122).  The  river  flows  through  an  excellent  farm- 
ing region  and  from  30  to  40  million  people  live  in  its  drainage  basin 
(Fig.  123).  Canals  connect  the  Volga  with  rivers  flowing  into  the 
Baltic,  the  White,  and  the  Black  seas. 

Navigation  of  the  Volga.  — Since  the  Caspian  Sea  is  an  inland 
lake  in  a nearly  desert  land,  the  traffic  on  the  Volga  is  largely  up- 
stream. Fifteen  times  as  much  traffic  formerly  reached  Petrograd 
by  the  Volga  canals  as  reached  Astrakhan  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Volga.  Russia  has  long  been  a country  of  fairs,  and  the  greatest 
fair  regularly  held  anywhere  in  the  world  was  held  at  Nizhni 


172 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Novgorod  on  the  Volga  in  the  very  heart  of  Russia.  Here,  in  late 
summer,  gathered  tens  of  thousands  of  buyers  and  sellers  of  almost 


Fig.  122.  — The  Volga  River  system,  Russia.  The  absence  of  tributaries  in  the 
southern  part  of  the  basin  reveals  the  very  light  rainfall  of  this  region.  Note 
that  most  of  the  cities  are  on  the  west  bank  of  the  river,  which  is  usually  higher 
ground  than  the  east  bank. 


everything ; traders  came  from  every  part  of  the  Empire  and  of 
Europe  ; from  Persia,  Turkey,  and  even  from  the  borders  of  China. 
Goods  to  the  value  of  about  one  hundred  million  dollars  changed 


SIX  OF  THE  WORLD’S  GREAT  RIVERS 


173 


hands  each  season,  and  a large  part  of  these  came  and  went  by  the 
river.  Thirteen  thousand  boats  entered  Nizhni  Novgorod  annu- 
ally, and  2000  to  3000  entered  and  cleared  at  Astrakhan  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Volga. 

The  Volga  as  a waterway  has  two  drawbacks  — its  upper  por- 
tion is  icebound  for  five  months,  and  its  lower  course  for  three 
months,  while  in  a dry  summer  the  water  becomes  so  shallow  that 
navigation  is  difficult  and  dredging  is  constantly  necessary.  At 


Fig.  123.  — Modern  harvesters  drawn  by  oxen  cutting  grain  on  the  broad  plains 
of  Russia.  ( Physiography  Lab.  Cornell  Univ.) 


its  mouth  the  Volga  is  building  a great  delta  in  which  the  river 
has  some  150  shifting  distributaries  and  50  regular  channels.  In 
the  lower  Volga,  great  numbers  of  sturgeon  are  caught  and  from 
their  roe  (eggs)  the  famous  Russian  caviare  is  made  and  widely 
sold. 

The  Volga  is  to  be  remembered  as  the  most  important  river  of 
Russia  — particularly  important  in  the  nation’s  life  because 
Russia  has  not  passed  the  stage  of  development  in  which  rivers  are 
arteries  of  transportation. 


174 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


The  Nile  and  Egypt 

Historic  Relations. — The  Greek 
historian  Herodotus  (450  b.c.) 
called  Egypt  the  gift  of  the  Nile. 
About  all  of  Egypt  that  pro- 
duces crops  is  a narrow  green  rib- 
bon from  1 to  10  miles  wide, 
stretching  a thousand  miles  across 
the  brown  and  yellow  desert,  and 
ending  in  a fertile  delta  150  miles 
broad.  Thousands  of  years  be- 
fore civilized  man  lived  in  western 
Europe,  the  valley  of  the  Nile 
was  the  seat  of  a powerful  and 
enlightened  empire,  where  lived 
a remarkable  race  of  builders, 
engineers,  and  warriors.  Their 
temples  and  pyramids  have  been 
the  wonder  of  all  ages.  The  Nile 
Valley  was  the  cradle  of  one  of 
the  world’s  oldest  civilizations. 
When  we  catch  the  first  glimpse 
of  the  ancient  Egyptians,  6000 
years  ago,  they  were  even  then  far 
advanced. 

Size  and  Character.  — The  Nile, 
second  in  length  only  to  the 
Mississippi-Missouri,  is  over  4000 
miles  long.  Rising  almost  on  the 
equator  in  one  of  the  great  lakes 
of  central  Africa  (Victoria  Nyanza), 
fed  by  the  heavy  downpours  of 
the  belt  of  calms  and  of  the  Abys- 
sinian monsoon,  the  Nile  carries 
such  a volume  of  water  that  it 


Fig.  124.  — The  Nile  River  system. 


SIX  OF  THE  WORLD’S  GREAT  RIVERS 


175 


flows  1600  miles  across  the  Sahara  without  increase  from  a single 
tributary.  Three  great  rivers  combine  to  make  the  Egyp- 
tian Nile  (Fig.  124),  namely  the  White  Nile  from  the  equatorial 
lakes,  the  Blue  Nile,  and  the  Atbara  from  the  mountains  of 
Abyssinia.  In  the  middle  course  of  the  river  are  six  series  of  rapids 
called  cataracts  (Fig.  124),  between  which  the  river  flows  with  a fall 
of  less  than  an  inch  to  the  mile.  The  Nile  Valley  is  narrow,  rarely 
over  10  miles  in  width.  The  cultivated  area,  including  the  entire 
valley  and  delta,  is  about  one-fifth  that  of  Illinois  (Fig.  125). 

The  Nile  Floods.  — Of  such  unusual  importance  to  millions  of 
people  are  the  Nile  floods  that  they  deserve  more  than  passing 
notice.  In  early  summer  the  river  is  at  its  lowest.  In  June  it 
begins  to  rise,  and  during  August  and  September  it  spreads  like  a 
lake  over  its  flood  plain ; in  late  September  it  is  20  feet  above  its 
low-water  stage  at  Assuan  ; then,  suddenly,  it  begins  to  fall,  subsid- 
ing almost  as  rapidly  as  it  rose.  Year  after  year  with  wonderful 
regularity  this  is  repeated.  The  Egyptians  have  kept  accu- 
rate records  for  3000  years,  and  these  show  the  average  annual 
rise  at  Thebes  to  have  been  36  feet.  Under  the  old  system  of 
irrigation  (and  to  some  extent  even  now)  a difference  of  six  or 
eight  feet  in  the  height  of  the  flood  water  was  a matter  of  serious 
importance.  If  the  water  rose  too  high,  embankments  broke  and 
disaster  followed.  If  it  did  not  rise  high  enough  to  overflow  the 
land,  there  was  no  crop,  and  famine  followed.  In  1877  nearly  a 
million  acres  of  land  failed  to  receive  water  and  there  was  great 
suffering  among  the  people. 

Cause  of  the  Rise  and  Fall  of  the  Nile.  — It  is  a strange  fact  that 
neither  of  the  large  branches  which  join  the  main  river  in  the 
stretch  south  of  Khartum  supplies  any  appreciable  amount  of  water 
to  the  Nile  floods.  The  flood  waters  and  their  load  of  rich  silt  do 
not  come  from  these  headwaters,  but  from  the  Blue  Nile  and  the 
Atbara,  which  are  fed  from  the  torrential  summer  rains  in  Abys- 
sinia. Such  a volume  of  water  does  the  Blue  Nile  pour  into  the 
main  channel  at  Khartum  that  it  actually  obstructs  the  flow  of  the 
White  Nile,  temporarily  ponding  it  back  into  a great  lake.  When 
the  flood  of  the  Blue  Nile  subsides,  the  V'hite  Nile  is  able  again  to 


176 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


send  its  retarded  waters  on  to  Egypt.  The  supply  of  water  from 
the  lakes  and  swamps  at  the  headwaters  of  the  White  Nile  would 
naturally  be  quite  constant,  but  this  would  give  most  of  the  val- 
ley no  overflow,  and  without  that  there  would  be  no  fertile  Egypt. 

Here  is  an  impressive  illus- 


tration of  the  importance  of 
a single  geographic  influence 
in  the  making  of  a nation. 

The  Older  Method  of  Irri- 
gation. — For  ages  the  Egyp- 
tians irrigated  such  land  as 
they  could  by  crude  methods. 
Embankments  or  dikes  were 
built  inclosing  shallow  “ ba- 
sins ” on  the  flood  plain. 
When  the  river  rose  high 
enough,  it  filled  the  basins 
with  the  muddy  Nile  water, 
which  stood  in  them  for  six 
weeks  or  more.  The  mud  set- 
tled to  the  bottom,  and  the 
water  soaked  deeply  into  the 
soil.  When  the  river  sub- 
sided, the  surplus  water  was 
allowed  to  drain  from  the  ba- 
sins back  into  the  river,  and 
as  soon  as  possible  seed  was 
sown  in  the  wet  ground. 
This  method  had  two  objec- 
tions: (1)  only  one  crop  a 
year  could  be  secured ; (2) 
only  the  land  which  was  over- 
flowed produced  a crop,  and 
the  amount  of  such  land  va- 
ried according  to  the  height  of  the  river.  Some  additional  land 
was  irrigated  by  using  crude  pumps  and  water  wheels  oper- 


Fig.  125.  — (17.  iS.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


SIX  OF  THE  WORLD’S  GREAT  RIVERS 


177 


ated  by  men  or  animals.  Thousands  of  these  are  still  in  use,  and 
travelers  tell  of  the  dreary  groaning  chorus  of  the  pumps  and 
wheels  as  they  laboriously  lift  the  water  to  the  thirsty  land. 

The  Present  System  of  Irrigation.  — Under  the  direction  of  the 
English  engineers  a great  dam  1^  miles  long  has  been  built  across 
the  Nile  at  Assuan  near  the  first  cataract  (Fig.  124).  Around  the 
dam  is  a canal  with  four  locks,  enabling  boats  to  pass.  Through 
the  dam  are  180  openings  with  gates  that  can  be  opened  and  closed. 
By  means  of  this  dam  the  excess  flood  waters,  which  formerly 
flowed  unused  to  the  sea,  are  now  stored  in  a great  artificial  lake 
that  extends  nearly  200  miles  up  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  In  the  dry 
season  this  water  is  released,  and  is  directed  into  canals  and  carried 
over  the  land,  enabling  the  people  to  raise  two  or  more  crops  a year. 

Cotton  of  excellent  quality  is  the  most  profitable  crop,  and  Egypt 
ranks  third  in  the  world  as  a cotton-growing  country ; but  corn, 
wheat,  barley,  and  vegetables  are  also  grown  in  large  quantities. 
Much  more  ground  is  now  irrigated  than  formerly,  larger  crops  are 
grown,  the  population  has  nearly  doubled,  and  the  country  is  pros- 
pering as  never  before.  Other  important  improvements  now  under 
way  are  directed  towards  the  irrigation  of  still  more  land.  So  pro- 
ductive are  the  flood  plain  and  delta  of  the  Nile  that,  although  the 
area  under  cultivation  is  only  one-fifth  of  that  of  one  of  our  me- 
dium-sized states,  it  supports  12,000,000  people.  Portions  of  the 
delta  have  1000  persons  to  the  square  mile,  the  densest  agricul- 
tural population  in  the  world. 

The  Nile  as  a Waterway.  — Excepting  at  the  rapids  or  “ cata- 
racts ” the  Nile  is  navigable  for  2900  miles.  It  is  still  the  main  ar- 
tery of  traffic,  although-  paralleled  in  part  by  a railroad.  Swarms 
of  the  peculiar  Nile  boats,  with  their  odd  sails,  and  a considerable 
number  of  steamers  navigate  the  river.  The  mouths  of  the  river 
are  practically  useless  for  navigation  because  of  sandbars  and 
because  of  dams  built  to  keep  out  the  sea  water  and  thus  to  preserve 
the  fresh  Nile  water  for  irrigation.  Cairo,  once  of  great  commer- 
cial importance,  is  at  the  apex  of  the  delta,  about  100  miles  inland 
from  the  sea.  Alexandria,  the  largest  city  in  Africa,  is  on  a spur  of 
solid  land  at  the  mouth  of  one  of  the  distributaries. 


178 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  126.  - — • A barage,  near  one  of  the  mouths  of  the  Nile ; by  this  means,  the  flow 
of  water  is  regulated  for  purposes  of  irrigation.  (17.  S.  Bur.  of  Soils.) 


Man  and  Nature  in  Egypt.  — The  story  of  Egypt  and  the  Nile 
illustrates  two  great  principles  in  the  field  of  geography.  The  com- 
plete dependence  of  12,000,000  people  upon  a single,  natural  phe- 
nomenon, such  as  the  annual  rise  of  a river,  shows  the  way  in  which 
men  are  sometimes  under  the  domination  of  their  geographic  en- 
vironment. The  Nile  floods  irrigated  a strip  of  desert  and  it  early 
became  the  seat  of  an  enlightened  empire.  The  second  principle  is 
illustrated  by  the  splendid  engineering  feat,  the  building  of  the 
Assuan  dam  and  its  related  devices  for  controlling  and  utilizing  the 
floods : an  example  of  man’s  conquest  of  nature ; of  his  power  to 
subjugate  the  forces  of  nature  and  make  them  serve  him. 


The  Ganges  and  India 

Importance  of  the  Ganges  in  the  History  of  India.  — Next  to 
China,  India  is  the  most  populous  country  in  the  world.  Here,  in 
an  area  half  the  size  of  the  United  States,  are  crowded  together 
nearly  twice  as  many  people  as  live  in  the  whole  western  hemi- 
sphere. India  has  been  the  home  of  mankind  for  thousands  of 
years,  and  the  people  have  crowded  into  every  province  in  about 
as  great  numbers  as  the  land  will  support.  When  we  discover  that 
nearly  half  of  India’s  great  population  live  in  one-fifth  of  the  coun- 


SIX  OF  THE  WORLD’S  GREAT  RIVERS 


179 


try,  we  at  once  suspect  that  this  one-fifth  must  be  a remarkable 
region  ; and  such  it  is,  for  its  soil  feeds  nearly  as  many  people  as  live 
in  North  and  South  America  combined.  This  region  is  the  valley 
of  the  Ganges  River  — not  one  of  the  long  rivers  of  the  world,  for 
it  is  only  half  the  length  of  the  Missouri. 

As  one  cannot  think  of  Egypt  without  thinking  of  the  Nile,  so  one 
cannot  think  of  India  apart  from  the  Ganges.  This  river  and  its 


broad  flood  plain  have  affected  the  history  of  India  and  the  life  of 
its  people  for  centuries.  The  great  civilizations  of  antiquity  grew 
up  on  the  rich  flood  plains  of  Egypt,  of  Mesopotamia,  of  India,  and 
of  China.  The  rivers  which  built  these  flood  plains  have  entered 
intimately  into  the  history,  the  literature,  the  religion,  and  the  life 
of  the  people.  The  inhabitants  depend  mainly  upon  agriculture, 
and  the  river  whose  waters  and  enriching  silt  give  them  their  crops 
soon  comes  to  be  almost  a god. 

As  the  ancient  Egyptians  worshiped  the  Nile,  so  millions  of 


180 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Hindus  worship  the.  Ganges.  Temples  and  shrines  line  its  banks 
and  hundreds  of  thousands  of  people  yearly  come  to  bathe  in  its 
sacred  waters  and  thus,  as  they  believe,  to  wash  away  their 
sins  (Fig.  128).  Benares,  the  most  holy  of  their  cities,  has  over  a 
thousand  temples  and  shrines.  All  this  illustrates  how  a river 


Fig.  128.  — Thousands  of  pilgrims  seeking  an  opportunity  to  bathe  in  the  sacred 
waters  of  the  Ganges.  ( Physiography  Lab.  Cornell  Univ.) 

that  irrigates  and  fertilizes  a people’s  lands  may  so  enter  into  their 
affections  that  they  regard  it  as  sacred. 

Features  of  the  Valley.  — The  Ganges  is  fed  by  the  perpetual 
snows  of  the  Himalayas  and  by  the  heavy  summer  rains  of  its  own 
valley.  The  rapid  mountain  streams  which  enter  the  Ganges  from 
the  north  have  brought  down  a great  amount  of  gravel  and  finer 
sediment  and  have  deposited  it  in  the  broad  valley  of  the  Ganges 
and  Indus,  partially  filling  it  and  crowding  the  Ganges  southward 


SIX  OF  THE  WORLD’S  GREAT  RIVERS 


181 


almost  to  the  edge  of  the  valley.  This  process  must  have  gone  on 
for  a long  time,  for  the  valley  is  now  filled  to  a depth  of  many  hun- 
dreds of  feet  with  the  sediment.  This  is  similar  to  the  process  by 
which  the  Great  Valley  of  California  has  been  filled.  The  Ganges 


Fig.  129.  — Wheat-growing  regions  of  India.  Note  the  concentration  in  the  fer- 
tile valley  of  the  upper  Ganges.  (C7.  S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


has  thus  built  a broad  and  fertile  plain,  and  with  the  aid  of  the 
Brahmaputra,  which  joins  it  from  the  east,  is  still  engaged  in  ex- 
tending its  delta  out  into  the  sea.  A low,  swampy,  tiger-infested 
jungle  reaching  200  miles  back  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  covers 


182 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


this  rapidly  extending  delta.  The  principal  distributary  in  the 
delta  is  the  river  Hooghly,  on  which  the  largest  city  of  India,  Cal- 
cutta, is  situated. 

Agriculture  in  the  Ganges  Flood  Plain.  — Hundreds  of  thousands 
of  acres  of  the  lowlands  are  planted  to  rice,  the  chief  food  of  the 
people,  and  to  jute  to  be  exported  or  used  for  making  cordage  and 
bagging.  The  farms  are  tiny,  the  cultivation  intensive,  the  people 
poor,  and  the  farm  villages  almost  as  numerous  as  farmhouses 
in  America.  In  the  western  half  of  the  Ganges  Valley  the  rainfall 
is  sufficient  only  for  summer  crops,  and  great  irrigation  works  have 
been  constructed  by  the  British  Government ; these  are  among  the 
largest  in  the  world.  The  soil  is  soft  and  warm,  and  is  enriched  by 
the  periodical  overflows.  The  amount  of  food  produced  is  enor- 
mous, as  it  has  to  be  to  feed  the  vast  population  (Fig.  129).  No- 
where else  in  India  is  the  soil  so  productive,  and  it  is  little  won- 
der that  the  Hindus  regard  the  river  with  reverence. 

Cities,  Navigation,  Railroads.  — The  valley  is  dotted  with  fa- 
mous cities,  Calcutta,  Benares,  Agra,  Delhi  (the  present  capital), 
and  many  more,  and  is  strewn  with  the  ruins  of  still  others.  Before 
the  English  built  their  railroads,  the  Ganges  was  the  great  thor- 
oughfare of  India.  In  1876—77  it  is  reported  that  178,000  boats 
passed  a certain  point  on  the  river.  Small  boats  are  still  used,  but 
steamers  now  rarely  ascend  beyond  Calcutta.  The  valley  is 
traversed  by  many  railroads  and  the  river  has  yielded  its  traffic  to 
them. 


The  Yangtze  and  China 

Importance.  — The  Yangtze  is  the  principal  river  of  the  most 
populous  country  in  the  world.  As  a highway  of  commerce  it 
serves  more  people  than  any  other  river.  It  is  as  long  as  the  Mis- 
sissippi and  carries  a much  greater  volume  of  water.  Rising  at  an 
altitude  of  over  10,000  feet  in  Tibet,  the  headwaters  plunge  down  a 
succession  of  falls  and  rapids,  acquiring  great  erosive  power,  and 
supplying  an  enormous  load  of  rock  waste  to  be  carried  out  across 
the  lowlands  of  China  for  building  up  the  flood  plain  and  delta  of 


SIX  OF  THE  WORLD’S  GREAT  RIVERS 


183 


the  Yangtze  (Fig.  130).  Like  the  Ganges  and  the  Amazon  it  is 
wearing  away  the  mountains  and  building  up  the  plains.  This 
work  of  rivers  has  greatly  increased  the  producing  power  of  the 
earth,  for  alluvial  plains  supply  a large  proportion  of  the  world’s 
food.  A quarter  of  the  human  race  lives  in  China,  and  the  larger 


part  of  these  are  farmer  folk  tilling  little  pieces  of  alluvial  land 
which  has  been  laid  down  by  China’s  many  rivers,  notably  the 
Yangtze  and  the  Hwang. 

Features  of  the  Yangtze.  — At  its  mouth  is  a delta  of  great  size ; 
for  1000  miles  above  its  mouth,  the  river  flows  through  a plain  of  its 
own  making,  intensively  cultivated  and  teeming  with  people  and 
dotted  with  walled  towns  and  cities.  Like  the  lower  Mississippi  it 
has  built  up  natural  levees  along  both  banks,  and  in  many  places 
the  river  channel  is  higher  than  the  general  level  of  the  plain 
through  which  it  flows.  It  will  be  recalled  that  this  is  common 
with  silt-carrying  rivers  which  periodically  flood  their  valley  bot- 
toms. 

At  Ichang  begin  the  picturesque  gorges  which  the  river  has  cut 
through  the  mountain  ranges  that  here  rise  across  its  course  (Fig. 
131).  These  deep  mountain  gorges  recur  for  400  miles  through  the 
mountainous  belt  that  separates  the  plains  of  eastern  and  central 


184 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


China.  In  this  400-mile  stretch  there  are  said  to  be  13  important 
rapids  and  72  minor  ones.  Beyond  the  gorges  (west)  lies  Sze- 
chuan, the  most  productive  and  populous  of  the  eighteen  provinces 
of  China.  In  this  rich  interior  basin,  as  large  as  California,  live 


Fig.  131. — In  the  gorge  of  the  upper  Yangtze  River  in  China.  Type  of  boat 

used  on  this  river. 

from  40  to  50  million  people,  and  the  only  commercial  highway 
between  it  and  the  outer  world  is  the  Yangtze. 

The  Yangtze  as  a Highway  of  Commerce.  — China  has  few  rail- 
ways and  the  navigable  rivers  are  of  utmost  importance.  Near 
the  mouth  of  the  Yangtze  is  Shanghai,  the  chief  commercial  city  of 
China.  Ocean  steamships  ascend  the  river  600  miles  to  the  great 
city  of  Hankau  (often  called  the  Chicago  of  China),  and  large  river 
steamers  ascend  to  the  rapids,  which  are  navigable  mainly  by 
specially  built  Chinese  junks  and  small  boats.  The  junks  carry 


SIX  OP  THE  WORLD’S  GREAT  RIVERS 


185 


50  tons  or  more  of  freight.  At  high  water  the  boats  rapidly 
descend  the  rapids  but  the  up  journey  is  difficult  and  dangerous. 
The  boats  are  laboriously  hauled  up  the  rapids  by  long  lines  of 
Chinese  coolies,  called  “ trackers  ” (Fig.  132).  The  largest  boats  re- 
quire 200  to  300  men  tugging  at  a bamboo  rope  a quarter  of  a mile 


Fig.  132.  — The  peculiar  Y angtze  boats  are  hauled  up  the  rapids  by  scores  of  Chinese 
called  “trackers,”  pulling  on  a bamboo  rope  that  is  sometimes  a quarter  of  a 
mile  long. 


long.  Scores  of  men  and  boats  are  lost  every  year.  The  labor  of 
the  trackers  is  the  most  arduous  in  which  any  human  beings  regu- 
larly engage.  For  12  hours  a day  they  labor  like  draught  horses, 
live  on  a little  rice,  and  earn  a mere  pittance. 

Eight  thousand  junks  and  a quarter  of  a million  river  men  carry 
on  the  commerce  of  the  upper  Yangtze.  In  this  way,  most  of  the 


186 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


merchandise  and  produce  are  conveyed  in  and  out  of  interior 
China ; and  almost  the  sole  avenue  for  a vast  traffic  is  the  Yangtze. 
No  other  river  means  so  much  to  the  commerce  of  a nation  as  this 
river  means  to  China.  The  Yangtze  is  to  be  remembered  as  a type 
of  great  river  serving  as  a nation’s  main  artery  of  communication. 

EXERCISE  XII 

1.  Why  are  the  rivers  of  the  Atlantic  slope  of  South  America  long  while 
those  of  the  Pacific  slope  are  very  short? 

2.  Why  does  the  Amazon  carry  a great  volume  of  water? 

3.  Why  does  its  current  flow  rather  slowly? 

4.  Why  is  the  Amazon  basin  a jungle? 

5.  Why  has  the  development  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  been  much  more 
rapid  than  that  of  the  Amazon? 

6.  Why  is  river  navigation  important  on  the  Amazon  but  not  on  the 
Mississippi  ? 

7.  Why  has  the  valley  of  the  Rhine  been  for  centuries  one  of  the  fore- 
most trade  routes  of  Europe? 

8.  Why  is  the  Rhine  more  uniform  in  volume  than  many  other  rivers? 

9.  Why  were  the  old  castles  located  mainly  along  the  “gorge”  portion 
of  the  Rhine? 

10.  Why  is  the  Rhine  used  more  for  navigation  than  any  of  our  American 
rivers  ? 

11.  Why  do  coal,  ore,  grain,  and  other  heavy  commodities  form  the  larger 
part  of  the  Rhine  traffic  ? 

12.  Why  are  rivers  used  more  largely  for  navigation  in  Russia  than  in 
the  United  States? 

13.  Why  is  the  Volga  a slow-flowing  river? 

14.  Why  is  its  upstream  traffic  larger  than  its  downstream? 

15.  Why  is  oil  used  as  fuel  by  the  Volga  steamers? 

16.  Why  has  the  Nile  no  tributaries  in  its  lower  course? 

17.  Why  is  the  Nile  of  exceptional  importance  to  Egypt? 

18.  Why  does  the  river  rise  to  such  a great  height  at  times  of  flood? 

19.  Why  is  the  White  Nile  of  less  importance  than  the  Blue  Nile? 

20.  Why  was  the  great  dam  of  Assuan  built? 

21.  Why  is  the  present  system  of  irrigation  in  the  Nile  Valley  superior 
to  the  old  system? 

22.  Why  is  the  Nile  flood  plain  and  delta  able  to  support  a very  large 
population? 

23.  Why  is  the  Ganges  Valley  the  most  important  part  of  India? 

24.  Why  do  the  Hindus  regard  the  Ganges  as  a sacred  river? 

25.  Why  does  the  Ganges  receive  the  larger  part  of  its  water  and  silt  from 
the  northern  tributaries? 

26.  Why  does  the  Ganges  Valley  contain  so  large  a part  of  the  popula- 
tion of  India? 


SIX  OF  THE  WORLD’S  GREAT  RIVERS 


187 


27.  Why  is  the  Yangtze  of  great  value  to  the  people  of  China? 

28.  Why  is  human  labor  very  cheap  in  China? 

29.  Why  is  the  plain  of  the  Yangtze  very  fertile? 

30.  Why  is  this  river  building  a delta  at  its  mouth? 

The  following  places  and  geographical  features  are  mentioned  in  the 
foregoing  chapter:  what  and  where  is  each?  Manaos,  Nizhni  Novgorod, 
Constance,  Benares,  Bonn,  Moselle,  Hooghly,  Hankau,  Iquitos,  Caspian, 
Mainz,  Madeira,  Atbara,  Para,  Agra,  Cairo,  Hwang,  Calcutta,  Rotterdam, 
Alexandria,  Delhi,  Astrakhan,  Assuan,  Indus,  Cologne,  Venice,  Himalaya, 
Peru,  Strassburg,  Antwerp,  Genoa,  Elbe,  Danube,  Seine,  Shanghai. 


CHAPTER  X 


GLACIERS  PRESENT  AND  PAST 

The  Glaciers  of  the  Alps 

Origin  and  Movement.  - The  peaks  of  the  Alps  are  between  two 
and  three  miles  high  and  at  this  altitude  the  snow  does  not  entirely 
melt  during  the  summer ; each  succeeding  winter  more  is  added 
until  the  piled-up  snow  in  the  snow  fields  becomes  deep  and  heavy. 
So  great  is  the  weight  that  the  snow  and  ice  move  slowly  down  the 
high  mountain  valleys  in  tongues  of  ice  known  as  mountain  gla- 
ciers or  valley  glaciers;  of  these  there  are  nearly  2000  in  the  Alps 
alone  (Fig.  133).  Their  motion  is  like  slow  flowage,  and  the  rate 
of  movement  varies  from  a few  inches  to  a few  feet  daily.  They 
flow  somewhat  more  rapidly  at  the  top  and  middle  than  at  the 
bottom  and  sides,  where  they  are  retarded  by  friction.  Part  way 
down  the  valley  the  end  of  the  tongue  of  ice  gradually  melts  and 
feeds  some  mountain  stream.  The  constant  melting  of  the  gla- 
ciers during  the  summer  tends  to  keep  glacier-fed  rivers  more 
steady  in  their  flow  than  other  rivers.  The  longest  glaciers  of 
the  Alps  are  from  5 to  10  miles  in  length,  but  most  of  them  are 
much  shorter.  In  places  they  are  crossed  by  great  open  cracks 
and  chasms  called  crevasses,  into  which  stones  fall  and  become 
eroding  tools  at  the  bottom  of  the  ice. 

Erosion  and  Transportation.  — In  the  high  mountains  ava- 
lanches frequently  plunge  down  the  mountain  sides,  tearing  away 
loose  rock  and  carrying  it  down  upon  the  snow  fields  or  glaciers. 
Fragments  of  rock,  large  and  small,  slide  and  roll  down  the  moun- 
tain slopes  and  are  carried  along  by  the  moving  ice.  Valleys  in 
which  glaciers  have  worked  for  a long  time  become  worn  into 
U-shaped  troughs  (Fig.  137).  Many  such  troughs  are  found 

188 


Fig.  133.  — Scene  in  the  high  Alps  where  glaciers  are  forming.  ( Aeroplane  photo 

by  Swiss  Aviation  Service.) 


190 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  135.  — The  black  areas  represent  the 
largest  glaciers  of  the  Alps ; these  are 
superposed  upon  the  Hubbard  glacier  of 
Alaska,  drawn  to  the  same  scale.  ( After 
Martin.) 


where  no  glaciers  now  exist 
and  they  tell  unmistakably 
of  a period  when  glaciers  oc- 
cupied these  valleys. 

Terminal  Moraines.  — As 
the  lower  end  of  the  glacier 
melts,  the  earth,  gravel, 
stones,  and  bowlders,  mixed 
in  the  ice,  pile  up  around  the 
end  forming  what  is  known 
as  a terminal  moraine.  Similar 
deposits  along  the  sides  of 
glaciers  are  lateral  moraines. 

Scenery  as  a Natural  Re- 
source. — The  glaciers  of  the 
Alps  attract  thousands  of 


Fig.  136.  — A V-shaped  valley  made  by  stream  erosion.  Compare  with  the  gla- 
ciated, U-shaped  valley  shown  in  Fig.  137.  ( U . S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


GLACIERS  PRESENT  AND  PAST 


191 


visitors  every  year.  Excellent  carriage  and  automobile  roads  have 
been  constructed,  and  at  sightly  points  hotels  have  been  built. 
The  Alps  and  their  glaciers  thus  bring  millions  of  dollars  to  the 


Fig.  137.  — A mountain  valley  that  has  been  eroded  into  a U-shape  by  valley 
glaciers.  (U.  S,  Geol.  Sur.) 

mountain  people  every  summer.  In  fact,  the  scenery  of  Switzer- 
land must  be  counted  as  one  of  the  little  country’s  chief  resources. 

Existing  Glaciers  in  North  America 

Alaska.  — On  the  Pacific  slope  of  the  Alaskan  mountains  the 
snowfall  is  very  heavy,  and  great  numbers  of  glaciers  exist ; these 
are  much  larger  than  the  glaciers  of  the  Alps.  Hubbard  Glacier 
is  40  miles  long  and  3 miles  wide  at  its  terminus.  In  Fig.  135  three 
of  the  largest  Swiss  glaciers  are  compared  in  size  with  one  of  the 
large  Alaskan  glaciers,  and  in  Fig.  139  the  front  of  a glacier  is 
shown  in  comparison  with  the  height  of  the  National  Capitol  at 
Washington. 


192 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Tidal  Glaciers  and  Icebergs.  — Many  of  the  glaciers  of  Alaska 
and  Greenland  reach  down  to  the  sea,  where  great  masses  break 
off  and  float  away  as  icebergs.  Such  glaciers  are  known  as  tidal 


Fig.  138.  — An  Alpine  glacier  formed  by  the  union  of  tributary  glaciers.  ( Aero- 
plane photo  by  Swiss  Aviation  Service.) 


glaciers  (Fig.  140).  Since  ice  is  nearly  as  heavy  as  water,  icebergs 
float  with  about  seven-eighths  of  their  mass  below  the  water  and 
so  are  very  deceptive  in  appearance.  Bergs  of  enormous  size  drift 
southward  near  Newfoundland  and  are  a menace  to  Atlantic 


GLACIERS  PRESENT  AND  PAST 


193 


Fig.  139.  — Front  of  the  Childs  Glacier,  Alaska,  with  the  Capitol  at  Washington 
drawn  to  the  same  scale.  {Martin.) 


Fig.  140.  — A tidal  glacier  in  Alaska.  The  ice  slowly  advances  into  the  bay  un- 
til it  reaches  water  that  is  deep  enough  to  float  the  ice,  and  then  large  blocks 
break  off  and  float  away  as  icebergs.  {Martin.) 


194 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


steamers  (Fig.  141).  The  great  Atlantic  liner  Titanic  struck 
such  a berg  in  1912  and  sank  within  a few  minutes. 

Piedmont  Glaciers;  the  Malaspina.  — In  certain  regions  such  as 
Alaska,  several  mountain  glaciers,  flowing  down  neighboring  val- 
leys, sometimes  unite  at  the  base  of  the  mountains  into  a broad, 
low  plateau  of  ice.  The  Malaspina  Glacier  in  Alaska  is  such  a gla- 
cier (Fig.  142) ; it  has  an  area  of  1500  square  miles,  which  is  more 


Fig.  141.- — -An  iceberg  from  the  north  floating  southward  near  Newfoundland. 
These  enormous  icebergs  constitute  a menace  to  shipping  in  these  waters. 
( XJ . S.  Geol.  Sur.) 

than  that  of  Rhode  Island.  This  glacier  remained  stationary  for  a 
time  ; the  surface  ice  melted  during  the  summers  and  gradually  the 
glacier  became  covered  with  soil ; trees  and  shrubs  took  root,  and 
a forest  20  to  35  square  miles  in  area  grew  on  the  surface  of  the 
glacier. 

The  Greenland  Ice  Cap.  — Greenland  is  four  times  the  size  of 
France ; with  the  exception  of  a narrow  border  near  the  coast,  it  is 
entirely  covered  by  snow  and  ice,  the  accumulation  of  centuries. 
This  plateau  of  ice  has  a very  slow  movement  from  the  middle  out- 
ward toward  the  sea ; some  distance  back  from  the  shore  the  ice 


GLACIERS  PRESENT  AND  PAST 


195 


collects  in  valleys  that  fringe  the  coast  and  moves  down  to  the  sea 
in  the  form  of  valley  glaciers.  These  valleys  end  in  deep  bays  or 
fiords  where  the  ice  breaks  off  and  floats  away  as  icebergs.  It  is 


Fig.  142.  — Photograph  of  a model  of  Malaspina  Glacier  on  the  coast  of  Alaska. 
{Model  by  Martin  and  Lorenz.) 


known  that  the  fiords  themselves  are  mainly  due  to  prolonged 
erosion  by  the  tongues  of  glacial  ice. 

Other  Glaciers  in  North  America.  — Glaciers  occur  in  the 
Canadian  Rockies,  and  still  smaller  ones  in  Glacier  National  Park 


196 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


in  Montana,  and  on  high  peaks  in  the  Cascade  Range,  and  even  in 
Mexico. 

Glaciers  in  Other  Parts  of  the  World.  — There  are  many  valley 
glaciers  in  the  southern  Andes,  and  also  a few  small  ones  near  the 
equator  in  the  Andes  and  in  Africa.  There  are  also  glaciers  in  the 
Caucasus  and  Himalaya  mountains,  in  Norway  and  New  Zealand, 
and  in  islands  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  The  continent  of  Antarctica  is 
covered  by  the  largest  ice  cap  now  existing.  It  is  more  extensive 
than  Europe,  and  resembles  the  Greenland  ice  cap,  but  is  much 
larger. 

Valley  Glaciers  Once  Larger  and  More  Numerous  Than  Now.  — ■ 

In  the  Alps,  the  Caucasus,  the  Rockies,  and  elsewhere,  glaciers 
once  occupied  valleys  where  there  are  at  present  no  glaciers, 
and  existing  glaciers  reached  many  miles  farther  down  their  valleys 
than  they  do  now.  This  is  known  by  the  moraines  which  they 
built  and  which  are  now  conspicuous  features  of  the  valleys  where 
glaciers  have  been.  This  and  other  facts  show  that  valley  glaciers 
in  many  parts  of  the  world  are  shrinking,  and  this  would  seem  to 
indicate  either  that  the  earth’s  climate  on  the  whole  is  slowly  be- 
coming warmer,  or  that  less  snow  is  falling  than  formerly. 

Continental  Glaciers  of  the  Past 

Evidences  That  Glaciers  of  Great  Size  Have  Existed  in  North 
America  and  Europe  ; Lessons  from  the  Alps.  — The  glaciers  of  the 
Alps  have  been  studied  for  more  than  a century.  Their  movement, 
their  power  to  erode  and  to  carry  rock  debris,  and  their  habit  of  de- 
positing moraines  have  long  been  understood.  It  was  noted  that 
the  moraines  contained  various  kinds  of  bowlders  and  rock  frag- 
ments brought  by  the  ice  from  higher  portions  of  the  mountains. 
The  rock  sides  and  bottoms  of  valleys  in  which  glaciers  had  moved 
were  seen  to  be  eroded,  and  even  polished,  by  the  moving  ice. 
Such  surfaces  are  marked  by  parallel  scratches  (called  striae ) and 
even  by  deep  grooves  running  in  the  direction  that  the  ice  moved 
(Fig.  143),  and  pebbles  in  the  moraines  are  often  worn  and  striated 
(Fig.  144).  In  short,  European  geologists  had  become  familiar 


GLACIERS  PRESENT  AND  PAST 


197 


with  the  signs  of  former  glaciers  at  the  base  of  the  Alps  long  before 
they  suspected  that  ice  sheets  had  spread  over  a third  of  Europe 
and  nearly  half  of  North  America. 

Discovery  of  Glacial  Evidences  in  the  United  States.  — About 
1850  the  Swiss  naturalist,  Louis  Agassiz  (ag'a-see),  who  had  come 
to  the  United  States,  noticed  here  bowlders,  moraines,  and  strife 
that  looked  like  those  left  by  glaciers  in  the  Alps.  He  announced 
his  belief  that  there  had  sometime  been  glaciers  in  parts  of  the 


Fig.  143.- — -Rock  surface  polished  and  grooved  by  glacial  erosion.  ( U . S.  Geol. 

Sur.) 


United  States.  Many  scientists  could  not  believe  it,  and  fanciful 
theories  were  invented  to  account  for  these  bowlders  and  moraines. 
But  every  year  more  evidence  was  discovered,  all  leading  unmistak- 
ably to  the  conclusion  that  a great  continental  ice  sheet  must  have 
once  spread  over  Canada  and  the  northern  United  States. 

Nature  of  These  Evidences.  Glacial  Boiclders  or  Erratics.  — In 
most  parts  of  our  northeastern  and  north  central  states  one  may 
find  bowlders  of  many  different  kinds  of  rock,  some  of  which  are 
entirely  unlike  the  bed  rock  found  in  the  region ; they  are  called 
erratics,  meaning  icanderers.  Sometimes  they  are  of  enormous 


198 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


size  (Fig.  145).  In  parts  of  New  England  they  are  so  numerous  as 
to  interfere  seriously  with  farming,  while  in  parts  of  Illinois 
scarcely  one  can  be  found.  In  some  instances  these  bowlders  have 

been  traced  back  to 
rock-ledges  from  which 
they  were  plucked  by 
the  glacier,  these 
ledges  being  at  times 
hundreds  of  miles  to 
the  north  or  north- 
east. 

Strice.  — Frequently 
when  a covering  of 
earth  is  removed,  the 
surface  of  the  under- 
lying rock  is  found 
to  be  marked  by 
parallel  scratches  and 
grooves,  showing  that 
glaciers  have  moved 
over  them  and  also  showing  the  direction  of  their  movement 
(Fig.  143). 

Moraines. — When  detailed  maps  of  our  northern  states  were 
made,  ranges  of  hills,  composed  of  sand,  gravel,  clay,  and  bowlders, 
were  found  to  extend  for  miles  across  the  country.  These  proved 
to  be  terminal  moraines,  built  up  of  materials  brought  by  glaciers 
and  deposited  when  the  ice  melted.  One  may  see  this  taking  place 
now  in  the  Alps  or  in  Alaska  on  a smaller  scale.  These  and  other 
evidences  carefully  studied  for  a half  century  so  completely  prove 
the  former  existence  of  a great  continental  ice  sheet  in  North 
America  that  we  are  as  sure  of  the  fact  as  if  we  had  actually  seen  the 
glacier  itself. 

Extent  of  the  North  American  Ice  Sheet.  — During  the  Glacial 

Period  or  Ice  Age,  this  continental  glacier  spread  outward  from  two 
principal  centers,  one  in  Labrador  and  one  west  of  Hudson  Bay 
(Fig.  146).  It  appears  that  at  these  places  the  greatest  amount  of 


Fig.  144.  — Glacial  bowlder,  showing  a polished 
and  striated  face  due  to  glacial  erosion.  ( U . S. 
Geol.  Sur.) 


GLACIERS  PRESENT  AND  PAST 


199 


Fig.  145.  ■ — - A glacial  bowlder  of  large  size  left  by  the  glacier  in  northern  New 

Jersey.  ( Salisbury .) 

snow  accumulated,  reaching  a depth  of  thousands  of  feet.  The 
weight  or  pressure  became  so  great  that,  as  in  Greenland  at  present, 
the  whole  body  of  snow  took  on  a slow  movement,  mainly  toward 
the  south,  and  was  not  stopped  until  it  reached  a region  where  the 
southern  climate  melted  it.  At  the  same  time  that  the  great  depth 
of  snow  was  collecting  at  these  centers,  valley  glaciers  were  forming 
in  all  of  the  higher  mountains  of  the  northern  half  of  the  continent. 
The  glacial  ice  pushed  as  far  south  as  Pennsylvania,  the  Ohio  River, 
and  the  Missouri  River,  covering  the  highest  peaks  of  the  Adiron- 
dacks  and  the  New  England  mountains.  In  southwestern  Wiscon- 
sin, extending  a little  into  Minnesota,  Iowa,  and  Illinois,  there  is  an 
area  of  about  15,000  square  miles  which,  for  some  reason,  was  not 
covered  by  the  glacier ; it  is  known  as  the  Driftless  Area  (Figs.  146a 
and  146b). 

The  European  Ice  Sheet.  — Another  continental  glacier  spread 
southward  from  the  north  of  Europe  as  far  as  central  Russia, 
central  Germany,  and  southern  England  (Fig.  147). 


200 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  146a.  — A map  showing  the  centers  from  which  the  glacial  ice  moved  in  the 
last  glacial  period,  and  the  maximum  extension  of  the  ice  sheet.  ( After  Tarr  and 
Martin.) 


GLACIERS  PRESENT  AND  PAST 


201 


Fig.  146b.  — The  white  area  in  the  northeast  represents  the  southern  portion  of  the  ice  sheet  of  the  last  glacial  epoch 
(the  Wisconsin).  The  dark  area  reaching  somewhat  farther  southward  represents  the  more  advanced  position  of  the 
ice  sheet  in  earlier  glacial  epochs.  ( Photo  and  Model  by  Howell , Wash.,  D.  C.) 


202 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Changes  Made  by  Continental  Glaciers 

Erosion.  — The  slowly  moving  ice  plowed  its  way  over  hills  and 
mountains,  through  valleys  and  over  plains.  Loose  rocks  and  soil 
became  mixed  with  the  ice  and  were  also  carried  along.  Project- 
ing ledges  of  rock  were  plucked  and  worn  away;  hill-tops  and 
mountain-tops  were  partially  rounded  off,  and  some  valleys  were 
considerably  eroded  (Fig.  137).  The  large  features  of  the  land, 
however,  such  as  the  highest  hills,  the  mountains,  and  the  main 
valleys,  were  changed  only  in  minor  details. 

Glacial  Deposits 

Glacial  Drift.  — In  parts  of  Canada  and  New  England  the 
glaciers  scraped  off  much  of  the  soil  and  carried  it  southward, 
causing  serious  loss  to  these  regions  ; but  the  area  south  of  the  Great 
Lakes,  and  other  regions  where  there  was  deposition  rather  than 
removal,  received  large  deposits  of  glacial  drift,  as  the  ice-carried 


GLACIERS  PRESENT  AND  PAST 


203 


Fig.  148.  — The  hummocky  hills  of  a terminal  moraine  in  Illinois.  ({7.  S.  Bur. 

of  Soils.) 

debris  is  called.  In  some  places  former  valleys  were  entirely  filled 
and  streams  were  compelled  to  find  new  courses. 

Terminal  moraines  were  heaped  up  along  the  margin  of  the  ice, 
marking  places  where  the  front  of  the  glacier  stood  for  a consider- 
able time,  melting  along  the  front  as  fast  as  the  ice  moved  up  from 
behind  (Fig.  148).  As  the  ice  melted  it  dropped  the  rock  and  earth 
which  it  carried,  and  in  the  course  of  time  built  up  morainic  hills, 
often  a hundred  feet  or  more  in  height,  in  belts  several  miles  wide, 
and  extending  for  scores  or  even  hundreds  of  miles  in  length 
(Fig.  148). 

The  front  of  the  glacier  was  a series  of  lobes  which  projected 
forward  in  the  valleys  and  lowlands.  We  can  now  tell  where  the  ice 
lobes  were  by  the  great  loops  of  moraine  which  mark  their  former 
positions  (Fig.  149).  Each  terminal  moraine  marks  a place  where 
the  front  of  the  glacier  stood  for  a long  time  during  its  intermittent 
retreat  toward  the  north  at  the  close  of  the  Ice  Age. 

The  Ground  Moraine.  — At  other  times  the  front  of  the  glacier 
melted  or  receded  rather  steadily,  pausing  nowhere  long  enough 


204 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


to  heap  up  terminal  moraines ; instead,  the  glacial  drift  laid  down 
by  the  melting  ice  was  spread  somewhat  unevenly  over  the  surface 
in  what  is  called  a till  sheet  or  ground  moraine  (Fig.  150).  In  places 
this  is  only  a few  inches  or  a few  feet  deep,  but  may  be  all  the  way 

up  to  a few  hundred 
feet  deep,  as  in  the 
states  from  Ohio  west- 
ward to  the  Missouri 
River ; these  glacial 
plains  are  one  cause 
of  the  agricultural  ex- 
cellence of  the  north 
central  states. 

Outwash  Plains.  — 
As  the  glacier,  with 
its  included  load  of 
rock  waste,  melted,  it 
yielded  a great  amount 
of  water  which  flowed 
away  from  the  ice, 
and,  where  the  land 
sloped  away  from  the 
glacier,  built  outwash 
-plains.  These  differ 
from  ground  moraine 
in  being  made  of 
water-sorted  material 
(sand,  clay,  and  gravel) 
roughly  stratified  and 
nearly  level.  The  total  area  covered  by  outwash  plains  in  the 
United  States  amounts  to  many  thousands  of  square  miles. 

Streams  Obstructed.  — Both  the  terminal  moraine  and  the 
ground  moraine  seriously  obstructed  the  former  courses  of  streams. 
In  some  cases  rivers  were  forced  to  reverse  the  direction  of  their 
flow  ; in  others  they  were  forced  to  wind  in  and  out  among  the  mo- 
rainic hills  in  entirely  new  courses,  giving  rise  to  rapids  and  falls. 


Fig.  149.  — Map  showing  the  position  of  one  of  the 
lobes  of  the  glacier  that  invaded  Wisconsin.  The 
arrows  indicate  the  direction  of  the  movement  of 
the  glacial  ice.  ( Alden , U.  S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


GLACIERS  PRESENT  AND  PAST 


205 


Lakes  Due  to  Glaciers.  — The  heaps  of  moraine  dumped  in  the 
valleys  by  the  glaciers  act  as  dams ; the  streams  are  thus  ob- 
structed, and  lakes  are  produced  (Fig.  151).  This  is  the  commonest 
cause  of  lakes,  and  in  most  regions  where  glaciers  have  existed,  lakes 
are  numerous.  The  beautiful  lakes  of  Switzerland,  Scotland,  and 
England  are  mainly  due  to  glaciers.  There  are  many  thousands  of 
these  in  Finland,  Sweden,  and  Canada;  New  England  is  dotted 


Fig.  150.  — Type  of  gently  rolling  ground  moraine  in  southern  Wisconsin;  ex- 
cellent farm  land.  ( XJ . S.  Bur.  of  Soils.) 


with  them.  The  beautiful  lakes  of  New  York,  New  Jersey,  Wis- 
consin, and  Minnesota  are  of  the  same  origin.  Some  of  these 
bodies  of  water  occupy  rock  basins  which  were  eroded  or  scoured 
out  by  the  glacier,  but  a much  greater  number  are  due  to  the 
damming  of  streams  by  moraines. 

The  Great  Lakes.  — The  five  Great  Lakes,  lying  along  the 
Canadian  border,  are  due  to  glacial  work.  They  occupy  old  river 
basins  which  have  been  eroded  and  deepened  by  the  ice  lobes  that 


206 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


moved  through  them,  while  masses  of  moraine  form  low  dams 
across  the  basins. 

Swamps.  — The  obstruction  of  streams  by  glacial  deposits  also 
caused  many  swamps  or  marshes.  These  are  more  or  less  numer- 
ous over  the  entire  glaciated  area,  and  in  all  cover  millions  of  acres. 


who  seek  rest  and  enjoyment  and  who  bring  into  the  region  a 
large  sum  of  money.  As  sources  of  ice,  fish,  and  water  for 
cities  these  lakes  have  an  annual  value  of  millions  of  dollars. 
Our  chain  of  Great  Lakes,  forming  the  greatest  inland  water 
way  in  the  world,  has  already  been  discussed  in  Chapter  VIII. 

Waterfalls.  — It  is  safe  to  say  that  nine-tenths  of  the  water- 
falls in  the  glaciated  area  of  the  United  States  would  not  exist  if 
glaciers  had  not  interfered  with  the  former  courses  of  the  streams. 
Glacial  drift  fills  or  partly  fills  many  of  the  preglacial  valleys,  and 
streams  are  forced  to  flow  in  new  and  ungraded  channels.  Here 
and  there  these  streams  plunge  over  rock-ledges,  and  waterfalls  are 
produced.  At  such  places,  water  power  is  available  and  leads  to 
important  industries.  Niagara  Falls,  the  falls  at  Minneapolis, 
at  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  at  Paterson,  N.  J.,  and  at  hundreds  of  other 


Many  of  the  shal- 
lowest glacial  lakes 
have  become  filled 
with  sediment  and 
vegetation  and  now 
are  merely  swamps. 


Fig.  151.  — Hundreds  of  glacial  lakes  in  northern 
Wisconsin.  (Wis.  Geol.  Sur.) 


The  Value  of 
Lakes.  — The  lakes 
of  our  northern  states 
are  a large  asset. 
Their  shores  are  de- 
lightful places  for 
homes,  summer  cot- 
tages and  hotels,  and 
sanitariums.  They 
attract  ever  increas- 
ing numbers  of  people 


GLACIERS  PRESENT  AND  PAST 


207 


places  in  New  England,  New  York,  Wisconsin,  and  elsewhere,  are 
due  to  changes  caused  by  glaciers. 

Glacial  Soil.  — In  much  of  New  England  and  eastern  Canada  the 
glacier  removed  the  original  soil  and  left  large  areas  strewn  with 
bowlders ; in  general  this  proved  an  injury  to  agriculture.  But 
in  the  upper  Missis- 
sippi Valley  the  wide 
stretches  of  glacial 
plains  form  one  of  the 
garden  spots  of  the 
earth.  Investigations 
in  the  states  of  Wiscon- 
sin, Illinois,  and  Ohio 
lead  to  the  belief  that 
agriculture  in  these 
states  benefits  yearly 
to  the  extent  of  mil- 
lions of  dollars  through 
the  smoothing  of  the 
topography  due  to 
glacial  deposits  (Fig. 

150). 

Temporary  Lakes  of 
the  Glacial  Period 

A portion  of  Minne- 
sota and  the  Dakotas  and  most  of  central  Canada  slopes  toward  the 
north,  and  the  rivers  flow  in  that  general  direction.  Since  the 
glaciers  came  from  the  north  and  northeast,  and  melted  back 
from  the  south  toward  the  north,  the  ice  formed  temporary 
dams  in  the  valleys  of  these  north-flowing  rivers  and  thus  lakes 
were  formed.  One  of  the  largest  of  these,  known  as  Lake  Agassiz, 
covered  an  area  greater  than  that  covered  by  all  of  the  five  Great 
Lakes  together  (Fig.  152).  It  occupied  the  valley  of  the  Red  River 
of  the  North,  and  while  it  lasted,  drained  southward  through  the 
Minnesota  River  into  the  Mississippi.  When  the  ice  dam  had 
melted  away,  the  lake  drained  northward  into  Hudson  Bay  and 


Fig.  152.  - — Map  showing  part  of  the  glacial  ice 
sheet  as  it  was  melting  away  at  the  close  of  the 
Glacial  Period.  The  front  of  the  ice  formed  a dam 
that  produced  a lake  of  great  size  (Lake  Agassiz) 
which  had  its  outlet  southward  through  the  Min- 
nesota River.  Lake  Winnipeg  is  a remnant  of 
that  glacial  lake.  (U.  S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


208 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


shrank  to  what  is  now  Lake  Winnipeg  in  Manitoba.  The  fine 
silt  which  this  lake  deposited  over  its  bed  now  constitutes  very 
rich  soil  over  an  almost  perfectly  level  plain. 

Various  Stages  of  the  Great  Lakes.  — When  the  glacial  lobes 
were  slowly  melting  from  the  basins  now  occupied  by  the  Great 


Fig.  153.  — Map  of  Great  Lakes  region  during  the  retreat  of  the  glacier.  Note 
the  various  outlets  of  the  lakes.  ( After  Taylor  and  Leverett.) 

Lakes,  marginal  lakes  of  varying  sizes  occupied  the  southern  and 
western  portions  of  the  lake  basins.  In  an  early  stage  each  of  these 
marginal  lakes  had  its  own  outlet  into  the  Mississippi  (Fig.  153). 
At  a much  later  stage  (Fig.  154)  they  drained  eastward  by  way  of 
the  Mohawk-Hudson  Valley.  Between  these  stages  many  differ- 
ent outlets  were  used. 

Epochs  of  the  Glacial  Period.  — Careful  study  of  glacial  deposits 
shows  that  the  last  Ice  Age  had  several  epochs  of  cold  climate 
alternating  with  epochs  of  warm  climate ; during  the  latter  the  ice- 
front  withdrew  toward  the  north  and  remained  for  many  thousands 
of  years.  These  warmer  epochs  are  referred  to  as  interglacial 
; periods . It  is  possible  that  we  are  now  living  in  an  interglacial 
period,  and  that  thousands  of  years  hence  our  northern  states  may 
again  be  buried  beneath  a great  ice  sheet. 

Very  Ancient  Glacial  Periods.  — The  Glacial  Period  of  which  we 
have  been  speaking  occurred  in  a recent  geological  age.  It  is  often 


GLACIERS  PRESENT  AND  PAST 


209 


spoken  of  as  having  occurred  but  yesterday.  This  was  only  one 
of  many  glacial  periods  that  have  come  and  gone  during  the  long 
ages  of  the  past.  Glacial  bowlders,  glacial  striae,  and  consolidated 
glacial  drift  are  found  in  rocks  of  great  age  in  Brazil,  South  Africa, 
India,  Australia,  Canada,  Scandinavia,  and  elsewhere.  It  is  clear 


Fig.  154.  — - Map  of  the  Great  Lakes  region  at  a later  stage  than  that  shown  in  Fig. 
153.  Compare  the  outlets  of  the  lakes  in  the  two  maps.  , ( After  Taylor  and 
Leverett.) 


that  the  climate  of  the  earth  undergoes  great  changes  and  that 
glacial  periods  have  occurred  time  after  time  throughout  the  past. 

Summary 

Glaciers  occur  wherever  the  amount  of  snow  which  falls  each 
year  in  the  mountains  is  greater  than  the  amount  which  melts. 
In  these  regions  snow  accumulates  and  is  compressed  into  ice, 
which  flows  slowly  down  the  mountain  valleys.  The  rate  of  flow 
is  usually  a few  inches  or,  at  the  most,  a few  feet  a day.  Loose 
rocks  fall  upon  the  glaciers  or  are  plucked  from  ledges  along  the 
route,  and  some  of  these  rocks,  firmly  frozen  in  the  bottom  of  the 
glacier,  act  as  tools  for  eroding  the  valley  down  which  the  ice  is 
moving.  Where  the  ice  melts  terminal  moraines  are  built. 

There  are  hundreds  of  valley  glaciers,  mostly  small  ones,  in  the 


210 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Alps.  Alaska  has  still  more  and  larger  valley  glaciers,  many  of 
which  move  down  to  the  bays  and  fiords  and  break  off  to  form 
icebergs.  The  fiords  of  Alaska,  Norway,  and  other  regions  are 
mainly  due  to  prolonged  glacial  erosion.  Nearly  all  of  the  lofty 
mountain  ranges,  even  in  the  tropics,  have  valley  glaciers.  Green- 
land and  the  Antarctic  Continent  have  slowly  moving  ice  caps 
covering  almost  their  entire  surface. 

During  the  last  60  or  70  years  complete  proof  of  the  presence 
of  former  glaciers  of  great  size  in  North  America  and  Europe  has 
been  established  through  the  evidences  of  glacial  striae,  erratics, 
moraines,  etc.  The  European  ice  sheet,  with  its  principal  center 
in  Scandinavia,  reached  as  far  south  as  southern  England,  Ger- 
many, and  central  Russia.  In  North  America  the  principal 
centers  from  which  the  glaciers  moved  were  in  Labrador  and  in 
Canada  just  west  of  Hudson  Bay.  The  ice  sheet  extended  as 
far  south  as  New  Jersey  and  Pennsylvania,  the  Ohio  River,  and 
the  Missouri  River.  In  places  the  glaciers  eroded  the  land  con- 
siderably, carrying  away  the  soil,  rounding  off  the  tops  of  hills 
and  mountains,  and  deepening  valleys.  In  our  north  central 
states  a great  amount  of  glacial  drift  was  deposited  in  the  form  of 
terminal  and  ground  moraines  and  glacial  outwash.  South  of 
the  Great  Lakes  the  drift  is  scores  and  even  hundreds  of  feet  deep 
in  places.  The  glacial  deposits  have  greatly  interfered  with  the 
courses  of  streams,  causing  lakes,  swamps,  rapids,  and  falls.  The 
glacial  plains  of  the  north  central  states  are  among  our  finest  agri- 
cultural lands. 

Temporary  lakes  occurred  in  places  along  the  southern  bor- 
der of  the  retreating  ice  sheet ; one  of  these,  Lake  Agassiz,  as 
large  as  all  the  Great  Lakes  together,  occupied  the  basin  of 
the  Red  River  of  the  North.  There  were  alternating  periods 
of  advance  and  retreat  of  the  ice  front,  giving  several  glacial 
and  interglacial  epochs,  each  thousands  of  years  long.  The 
last  glacial  period  came  to  a close  in  a recent  geological  age, 
perhaps  not  over  30,000  years  ago.  It  was  one  of  many  such 
periods  which  have  occurred  at  intervals  during  the  history  of 
the  earth. 


GLACIERS  PRESENT  AND  PAST 


211 


EXERCISE  XIII 

Explain  the  meaning  of  each  of  the  following  terms : 


1. 

Snow  field 

8. 

Glacial  erosion 

15. 

Outwash  plain 

2. 

Valley  glacier 

9. 

Continental  glacier 

16. 

Preglacial 

3. 

Terminal  moraine 

10. 

Striae 

17. 

Interglacial 

4. 

Crevasse 

11. 

Erratics 

18. 

Postglacial 

5. 

Tidal  glacier 

12. 

Glacial  Period 

19. 

Ice  Age 

6. 

Piedmont  glacier 

13. 

Glacial  drift 

20. 

Glacial  till 

7. 

Ice  cap 

14. 

Ground  moraine 

EXERCISE  XIV 

1.  How  are  glacial  striae  made? 

2.  How  are  terminal  moraines  built? 

3.  How  did  the  continental  glacier  bring  lakes  into  existence? 

4.  How  did  the  continental  glacier  benefit  parts  of  North  America? 

5.  How  did  it  injure  other  parts? 

6.  How  did  it  cause  waterfalls  and  rapids? 

7.  How  did  it  cause  swamps  ? 

8.  How  are  outwash  plains  formed  ? 

9.  How  fast  do  glaciers  move? 

10.  How  do  we  know  that  there  have  been  several  ice  ages  in  the  past? 

11.  How  was  glacial  Lake  Agassiz  caused ? Where  was  it?  How  large? 

12.  How  has  Lake  Agassiz  proved  a benefit  to  the  territory  that  it  covered? 

13.  How  are  most  icebergs  formed  ? 

14.  How  did  the  Glacial  Period  benefit  (a)  present  day  agriculture  ? ( b ) pres- 
ent day  manufacturing  ? 


EXERCISE  XV 

1.  Why  do  glaciers  exist  in  some  mountains  but  not  in  others? 

2.  Why  do  the  glaciers  of  the  Alps  move  faster  in  summer  than  in  win- 
ter? 

3.  Why  are  glacier-fed  rivers  more  uniform  in  their  flow  than  most  other 
rivers  ? 

4.  Why  does  glacial  ice  usually  contain  more  or  less  rock  waste  ? 

5.  Why  do  glaciated  regions  usually  have  a variety  of  soils? 

6.  Why  does  Alaska  have  more  glaciers  than  British  Columbia  or  Wash- 
ington ? 

7.  Why  do  the  glaciers  of  Alaska  extend  down  the  mountain  valleys  to 
lower  levels  than  those  of  the  Alps  ? 

8.  Why  is  the  Greenland  glacier  called  an  ice  cap? 

9.  Why  may  glaciers  exist  even  in  the  torrid  zone? 


212 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


10.  Why  do  we  believe  that  the  climate  of  the  earth  as  a whole  is  grow- 
ing warmer  rather  than  cooler  ? 

11.  Why  did  Agassiz  decide  that  glaciers  had  covered  portions  of  North 
America  which  now  have  no  glaciers? 

12.  Why  are  there  more  lakes  in  glaciated  regions  than  elsewhere? 

13.  Why  are  falls  and  rapids  numerous  in  the  rivers  of  glaciated  regions? 

14.  Why  did  the  continental  glaciers  of  Europe  and  North  America  move 
for  the  most  part  in  a southerly  direction? 

15.  Why  may  the  scenery  of  Switzerland  be  considered  one  of  the  natural 
resources  of  that  country? 


CHAPTER  XI 


SURFACE  CHANGES  PRODUCED  FROM  WITHIN 

The  Continents  and  the  Ocean  Basins.  The  continents  are 
large  masses  of  the  earth’s  crust  which  rise  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  yet  none  of  the  continents  is  wholly  above  sea  level.  All  of  them 
have  borders,  called  continental  shelves,  which  are  covered  by  shal- 
low ocean  water ; thus  the  continents  are  larger  than  they  appear  on 
the  map.  At  the  seaward  edge  of  the  continental  shelves  the  ocean 
floor  slopes  downward  somewhat  abruptly  to  the  ocean  depths. 
The  ocean  basins  are  believed  to  be  portions  of  the  crust  that  have 
settled ; in  sinking  they  have  pressed  with  great  force  against  the 
margins  of  the  continents,  forcing  up  portions  of  the  crust  to  form 
mountains  and  plateaus. 

Observed  Movements  of  the  Earth’s  Crust.  — Most  of  the  up- 
ward or  downward  movements  of  the  earth’s  crust  are  very  slow, 
but  in  some  instances  the  change  of  level  is  rapid ; for  example, 
in  an  Alaskan  earthquake  (in  1899)  a portion  of  the  coast  rose 
47  feet,  while  a near-by  portion  settled  several  feet.  There  are 
abundant  records  of  slower  movements ; for  example,  in  northern 
Sweden,  in  the  Bay  of  Naples,  and  in  the  island  of  Crete  in  the 
Mediterranean.  On  the  coasts  of  Labrador,  of  California,  of 
Peru,  and  in  many  other  places,  old  shore  lines  are  now  scores 
or  hundreds  of  feet  above  the  present  sea  level.  So  common  is 
this  rising  or  sinking  that  almost  every  coast  bears  evidence  of  it. 

Condition  of  the  Earth’s  Interior.  — Volcanoes,  geysers,  and  hot 
springs  show  that  below  the  crust  of  the  earth,  in  certain  places, 
at  least,  there  is  great  heat.  Well-borings  and  deep  mines  reveal 
an  average  increase  of  heat  of  1°  F.  for  each  50  or  60  feet  of  descent. 
Not  long  ago  people  believed  the  interior  of  the  earth  to  be  com- 
posed of  molten  or  liquefied  rock.  Although  the  deep-seated  rocks 

213 


214 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


are  very  hot,  recent  investigations  prove  that  the  interior  of  the 
earth  is  solid  and  is  more  rigid  than  a globe  of  steel ; nevertheless, 
there  are  places  where  the  rocks  are  melted  and  come  to  the  surface 
as  lava. 

Earthquakes 

Earthquakes  Very  Common.  — If  every  earthquake  were  known 
and  reported,  we  should  find  that  they  are  of  almost  constant  occur- 
rence at  one  place  or  another.  It  is  estimated  that  an  average  of 
nearly  100  earthquakes,  which  would  be  perceptible  to  our  senses, 
occur  daily.  Most  of  these,  and  many  still  weaker  tremors,  are 
known  only  through  the  records  made  by  instruments  which  auto- 


Fig.  155.  — Ruins  of  the  gymnasium  of  Stanford  University  after  the  earthquake 
of  1906.  {U . S.  Geol.  Sur.) 

matically  record  even  slight  movements  of  the  crust.  Occasion- 
ally there  are  shocks  of  great  violence,  and  when  the  latter  occur  in 
the  neighborhood  of  cities,  heavy  loss  of  property  and  life  results. 
Such  earthquakes  are  among  nature’s  most  frightful  phenomena. 


SURFACE  CHANGES  PRODUCED  FROM  WITHIN  215 


Examples  of  Destructive  Earthquakes.  — San  Francisco  had  an 
earthquake  in  1906,  which  in  itself  did  serious  damage  (Figs.  155, 
156).  The  loss  from  fire  was,  however,  still  greater,  for  the  broken 
water  mains  prevented  the  effective  fighting  of  fire,  which  gained 
such  headway  that  it 
destroyed  about  25,000 
buildings.  The 
Charleston  earthquake 
of  1886  is  thus  de- 
scribed: “Strange 
noises  were  heard  and 
slight  tremors  were 
felt  before  the  earth- 
quake, notably  on 
August  27  and  28. 

Just  before  ten  o’clock 
at  night  on  the  31st  a 
rumbling  sound  was 
heard,  increasing  to  a 
great  roar,  and  the 
shaking  became  vio- 
lent. There  was  a 
second  violent  shock 
a few  minutes  after- 
wards, and  a number 
of  aftershocks  of  lesser 
violence.  The  earth- 


quake Wav  e spread  at  pIG  — Effect  of  an  earthquake  upon  the  rails 
the  rate  of  150  miles  a and  paving  of  a city  street.  (U.  S.  Geol.  Sur.) 

minute,  and  was  felt 

in  many  states;  14,000  chimneys  were  thrown  down  and  27 
persons  were  killed.”  The  terrible  Lisbon  earthquake  of  1755 
is  reported  to  have  caused  the  death  of  60,000  people  in  six 
minutes.  Southern  Italy  has  had  repeated  earthquakes  of  ter- 
rible destructiveness;  the  one  at  Messina  in  1908  caused  the  loss 
of  100,000  lives.  Japan  is  subject  to  daily  earthquakes,  having 


216 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


an  average  of  1 400  recorded  tremors  and  shocks  a year ; most  of 
them  are  light,  yet  223  very  destructive  shocks  are  known  to  have 
occurred  in  that  country  in  the  last  1500  years. 

Causes  of  Earthquakes.  — The  earth  is  still  in  the  making;  be- 
cause of  the  slow  contraction  due  to  the  loss  of  heat  and  other 


Fig.  157.  — The  fence- — -formerly  continuous  — was  offset  8-!,-  feet  by  the  Cali- 
fornia earthquake  of  1906.  (U.  S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


causes,  the  rocks  of  the  earth’s  surface  are  constantly  under  great 
stress,  so  great  that  at  times  they  break  along  some  plane  of  weak- 
ness and  one  side  is  forced  violently  up  or  down  or  sidewise  (Fig. 
157).  The  displacement  varies  in  amount  from  a few  inches  to 
many  feet,  and  may  occur  along  a line  scores  of  miles  in  length. 


SURFACE  CHANGES  PRODUCED  FROM  WITHIN  217 


This  breaking  of  the  rocks  under  stress  is  the  chief  cause  of  earth- 
quakes, but  there  are  minor  causes  of  small  importance,  such  as 
avalanches,  the  falling  in  of  the  roofs  of  caves,  and  the  discharge 
of  explosives. 

Movement  of  Earthquake  Waves.  — Owing  to  the  great  pressure 
upon  the  deep-seated  rocks,  only  those  rocks  near  the  surface  are 
able  to  break  and  slip,  and  thus  to  produce  a tremor  or  quake.  At 
great  depths  the  rocks 
flow  rather  than 
fracture.  Directly 
over  the  line  along 
which  the  fracturing 
of  rock  occurs,  the 
shock  sets  up  “waves,” 
or  vibrations  in  the 
earth’s  crust,  and  these 
have  a nearly  up-and- 
down  movement  which 
is  very  destructive, 
but  as  the  waves 
spread  outward  from 
the  place  of  origin, 
they  become  less  and 
less  dangerous.  The 
waves  thus  started 
pass  both  around  the 
earth  and  through  it, 
accomplishing  the  latter  in  about  20  minutes.  The  great  velocity 
with  which  these  waves  travel  through  the  earth  is  one  of  the 
evidences  that  the  earth’s  interior  is  solid. 

The  Principal  Earthquake  Zones.  — Both  earthquakes  and 
volcanoes  are  most  common  in  regions  of  young,  growing  moun- 
tains, where  rock  stresses  are  great.  Such  mountains  nearly 
encircle  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  Mediterranean  Sea  and  the  East 
and  West  Indies  are  also  regions  of  frequent  earthquakes  (Fig. 
165). 


Fig.  158.  — Fissures  in  the  earth  opened  by  the 
California  earthquake  of  1906.  ( XJ . S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


218 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  159.  — Ropy  lava  and  cinder  cone  at  the  summit,  of  Mt.  Vesuvius,  1872. 


SURFACE  CHANGES  PRODUCED  FROM  WITHIN  219 


Summary 

Earthquakes  occur  at  frequent  intervals  somewhere  in  the  earth, 
but  most  of  them  do  little  harm ; occasionally  one  of  unusual 
violence  occurs  near  a city  and  causes  great  loss  of  property  and 
life.  Earthquake  waves  travel  very  rapidly,  passing  through  the 
earth  in  about  20  minutes.  Japan  has  an  average  of  1400  recorded 
quakes  a year,  but  most  of  them  are  of  slight  force.  Earthquake 
shocks  and  tremors  are  due  chiefly  to  fracturing  and  slipping  of 
bodies  of  rock  at  or  near  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  are  most 
frequent  in  regions  of  young,  growing  mountains  such  as  those 
which  nearly  encircle  the  Pacific  Ocean,  or  those  in  the  south  of 
Europe,  in  the  East  Indies,  and  in  the  West  Indies. 

Volcanoes 

Two  Types  of  Volcanoes.  — In  the  quiet  type  of  volcanoes,  such 
as  those  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands,  lava  rises  in  the  throat  of  the 
crater  and  from  time  to  time  spills  over  the  rim  or  breaks  through 
the  side  and  flows  slowly  away  in  a thick,  sluggish  stream,  cooling 
as  it  flows  (Fig.  159).  Volcanic  cones  built  up  in  this  way  are  broad 
in  proportion  to  their  height. 

In  the  explosive  type,  the  volcano  may  slumber  for  a long  time, 
perhaps  for  centuries  as  in  the  case  of  Vesuvius  ; then  rumblings  are 
heard,  steam  issues  from  the  crater,  and  soon  a terrific  explosion 
occurs.  Steam,  ash,  cinders,  and  pieces  of  volcanic  rock  are  hurled 
into  the  air  and  fall  in  a shower  upon  the  surrounding  country  (Fig. 
159).  This  explosion  is  usually,  though  not  always,  followed  by 
the  outpouring  of  lava.  Sometimes  clouds  of  suffocating  gases 
pour  from  the  crater  and  settle  over  the  surrounding  country,  de- 
stroying every  living  thing.  In  the  eruption  of  Mt.  Pelee  on  the 
border  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  (1902)  every  person,  except  one,  in  the 
near-by  city  of  St.  Pierre  was  killed. 

Famous  Volcanoes.  — ■ Of  the  400  to  500  active  volcanoes  on  the 
earth  a few  have  become  famous.  Vesuvius  (Fig.  160),  by  the  Bay 
of  Naples,  has  had  several  outbursts  of  great  violence,  one  of  them 


220 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


burying  the  fine  old  Roman  cities  of  Pompeii  and  Herculaneum 
in  the  year  79  a.d.  Etna  on  the  island  of  Sicily  near  Italy,  and 
Stromboli  near  by,  are  also  historic  volcanoes.  Krakatoa,  on  an 
island  southeast  of  Asia,  had  (in  1883)  one  of  the  most  terrific  ex- 
plosions ever  known  ; windows  were  broken  a hundred  miles  away  ; 
half  of  the  island  was  hurled  into  the  air,  and  water  1000  feet  deep 
now  occupies  the  place  where  this  half  of  the  island  was.  The 


Fig.  160.  - — Mt.  Vesuvius  in  eruption  in  1872. 


wave  occasioned  by  the  explosion  swept  over  the  ocean  to  the  far- 
off  coasts  of  Africa,  Australia,  and  California ; dust  from  the  vol- 
cano was  carried  by  high  air  currents  entirely  around  the  earth,  and 
some  of  it  continued  to  float  for  more  than  two  years. 

Mauna  Loa,  Mauna  Kea,  and  Ivilauea  are  widely  known  vol- 
canoes in  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  Many  of  the  loftiest  peaks  of 
South  America,  of  Mexico,  and  of  western  North  America,  such  as 
Mt.  Shasta,  Mt.  Hood,  and  Mt.  Rainier,  are  volcanic  cones  (Fig. 
161).  The  towering  cone  of  Mt.  Fujiyama  in  Japan,  which  ap- 
pears in  many  Japanese  pictures,  is  almost  a national  idol. 

Fissure  Eruptions.  — At  different  times  in  the  past  enormous 
quantities  of  lava  have  risen  through  fissures,  or  vents  in  the  crust 


SURFACE  CHANGES  PRODUCED  FROM  WITHIN  221 


Fiq.  161.  — The  lofty  volcanic  cone  of  Mt.  Shasta  in  northern  California.  (©  by 

Waters.) 


Fis.  162.  — Lava  from  Volcano  Sakurazima,  Japan,  flowing  into  the  sea  (1916). 


222 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


of  the  earth,  and  have  spread  over  the  surrounding  country  in  a 
lake  of  molten  rock.  In  the  basin  of  the  Columbia  and  Snake 


Fig.  163.  - — Canon  of  the  Snake  River  in  Idaho  where  the  river  has  cut  a deep 
gorge  in  the  lava  plateau.  The  layers  showing  successive  flow  of  lava,  are 
plainly  visible.  (U.  S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


rivers  in  Washington,  Idaho,  Oregon,  and  northern  California,  out- 
pourings of  this  kind  have  taken  place  repeatedly  in  past  ages. 


SURFACE  CHANGES  PRODUCED  FROM  WITHIN  223 


The  different  beds  of  lava  formed  by  the  successive  outflows  hard- 
ened into  rock  and  now  lie  one  upon  the  other,  in  some  places  at- 
taining a total  depth  of  4000  feet  (Fig.  163).  Hills  and  mountains 
were  buried  in  the  lava  and  their  tops  now  rise  above  it  like  islands. 

This  plateau  of  igneous  rock  extends  over  an  area  of  more  than 
200,000  square  miles  (Fig.  164).  Iceland,  the  peninsula  of  India, 


Fig.  164.  — The  great  lava  plateau  of  the  Columbia  and  Snake  river  basin. 
(U . S.  Geol.  Sur.  Bulletin  611.) 


the  north  of  Ireland,  and  several  other  regions  have  had  similar 
lava  flows.  The  soil  which  is  formed  by  the  decay  of  this  lava  is 
often  very  productive. 

Causes  of  Volcanoes.  — These  are  not  well  understood,  but  the 
following  points  appear  to  be  true:  (1)  that  the  interior  of  the 
earth  is  not  liquid,  but  that  (2)  there  are  places  where,  for  some 


224 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY" 


cause,  reservoirs  or  huge  pockets  of  molten  rock  exist ; (3)  that  this 
molten  rock  is  squeezed  upward  through  vents  by  the  great  weight 
of  solid  rock  above  it,  causing  the  quiet  type  of  volcano  and  the 
great  outflows  of  lava  through  fissures ; (4)  that  the  explosive  vol- 
canoes are  due  either  to  steam  produced  by  water  coming  in  con- 


Fig.  165.- — Distribution  of  volcanoes,  shown  by  the  shaded  areas;  dots  indi- 
cate the  locations  of  some  of  the  active  or  recently  extinct  volcanoes. 


tact  with  heated  rocks  below  the  surface,  or,  more  likely,  to 
; steam  and  other  vapors  contained  in  the  lava  itself. 

Distribution  of  Volcanoes.  — The  volcanic  belts  of  the  earth 
coincide  closely  with  the  earthquake  belts  (Fig.  165).  Volcanoes, 
both  active  and  extinct,  are  numerous  in  a zone  around  the  Pacific 
Ocean.  They  also  occur  in  the  Mediterranean  region,  in  the  West 
Indies,  in  the  East  Indies,  Iceland,  East  Africa,  and  on  many  scat- 
tered islands ; in  fact,  about  two-thirds  of  the  active  volcanoes  are 
on  islands.  Many  of  these  are  regions  of  growing  mountains. 
Volcanic  cones  frequently  rise  from  the  sea  bottom,  building  up 
volcanic  islands,  such  as  the  Hawaiian  group  and  many  others  in 
the  Pacific.  Regions  of  old  mountains  and  the  interiors  of  conti- 


SURFACE  CHANGES  PRODUCED  FROM  WITHIN  225 


nents  are  relatively  free  from  active  volcanoes.  Only  one  volcano 
in  the  United  States  has  been  active  since  white  men  came  to 
America,  Lassen  Peak  in  California,  which  erupted  in  1915. 

Summary 

Volcanoes  of  the  quiet  type,  such  as  those  of  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  from  time  to  time  pour  forth  lava  which  spreads  out  and 
builds  up  broad,  gently  sloping  cones.  These  and  the  great  out- 
flows from  fissures  seem  to  be  due  to  the  squeezing  upward  of  lava, 
perhaps  caused  by  the  pressure  of  the  overlying  rocks.  Volcanoes 
of  the  explosive  type  are  alternately  quiescent  and  active.  These 
are  treacherous  and  dangerous;  they  sometimes  blot  out  entire 
cities  by  the  showers  of  ashes  and  cinders  and  the  clouds  of  suffo- 
cating gases  which  they  emit.  The  cones  built  by  such  volcanoes 
are  usually  high  and  pointed  and  form  some  of  the  loftiest  peaks 
in  the  world.  In  several  parts  of  the  earth  lava  has  risen  through 
fissures,  has  spread  over  thousands  of  square  miles,  and  has  built 
up  lava  plateaus  such  as  the  Columbia  River  Plateau  and  the 
“Deccan”  of  India.  The  cause  of  explosive  volcanoes  is  not  well 
understood  but  seems  to  be  connected  with  steam  and  other  vapors 
confined  in  the  lava.  A great  volcanic  belt  nearly  encircles  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  There  are  volcanoes  on  the  margins  of  other  con- 
tinents and  on  islands,  but  not  many  in  the  interiors  of  continents. 

EXERCISE  XVI 

1.  What  is  a “continental  shelf”? 

2.  Explain  why  the  continents  are  larger  than  they  appear  on  an  ordi- 
nary map. 

3.  To  what  are  the  ocean  basins  due? 

4.  Cite  examples  of  rising  and  sinking  coasts.  Are  such  movements  of 
the  land  common  ? 

5.  What  are  the  evidences  that  the  interior  of  the  earth  is  hot?  Is  it 
thought  to  be  in  a molten  condition  ? 

6.  Comment  on  the  frequency  and  violence  of  earthquakes. 

7.  Give  examples  of  severe  earthquakes  and  of  the  extent  of  their  de- 
structiveness. 

8.  What  is  the  probable  cause  of  earthquakes? 


226 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


9.  Why  do  the  movements  that  produce  earthquakes  occur  only  in  the 
rocks  near  the  surface  of  the  earth? 

10.  Describe  the  movements  of  earthquake  waves. 

11.  Where  are  the  principal  earthquake  zones? 

12.  What  are  the  two  types  of  volcanoes  and  what  are  their  chief  differ- 
ences? 

13.  Name  and  locate  several  volcanoes,  (a)  outside  the  United  States, 
(b)  in  the  United  States. 

14.  What  are  fissure  eruptions?  Name  regions  in  which  extensive  ones 
have  occurred. 

15.  What  are  the  suggested  causes  of  volcanoes? 

16.  Where  are  the  principal  regions  of  volcanic  activity? 

17.  On  a wall  map  or  other  map  point  out  the  following  places  or  geo- 
graphical features  mentioned  in  the. chapter:  Alaska,  Naples,  Peru,  Sweden, 
Japan,  San  Francisco,  Charleston,  Lisbon,  Messina,  East  Indies,  West  In- 
dies, Caribbean  Sea,  Vesuvius,  Island  of  Sicily,  Mt.  Etna,  Hawaiian  Islands, 
Mt.  Shasta,  Columbia  River  Plateau,  Iceland,  India. 


CHAPTER  XII 


SURFACE  FEATURES  OF  THE  LAND;  THEIR  ORIGIN  AND 

INFLUENCE 

The  major  features  of  the  land  are 

1.  Mountains  2.  Plateaus  3.  Plains 
Hills  and  Mountains.  — In  a comparatively  level  region  the 
people  sometimes  call  an  elevation  a few  hundred  feet  high  a 


Fig.  166.  — • Intensely  folded  rocks  in  one  of  the  mountains  of  Alaska.  Such 
folding  is  frequent  in  mountain  structures.  (U.  S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


mountain,  while  in  some  other  region  a much  higher  elevation  is 
called  a hill.  The  so-called  Berkshire  Hills  of  Massachusetts  attain 
a height  of  over  2000  feet,  and  the  Black  Hills  in  South  Dakota  and 
Wyoming  rise  to  over  7000  feet.  However,  the  word  hill  is  usually 
applied  to  a low  elevation,  while  the  word  mountain  is  applied  to  an 

227 


228 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


elevation  measured  in  thousands  of  feet  and  having  a small  area 
at  the  top. 

Origin  of  Mountain  Ranges.  — Mountain  ranges  may  be  thought 
of  as  wrinkles  in  the  earth’s  crust  due  to  the  shrinking,  or  contract- 
ing, of  the  interior.  The  contracting  has  sometimes  been  attrib- 
uted to  cooling,  but  this  is  probably  not  the  only  cause,  and  possi- 
bly not  the  chief  cause.  At  any  rate  our  globe  has  undergone  a 
slight  shrinking  and  this  has  compelled  the  outer  shell  to  wrinkle. 

Volcanic  Activity  in  Mountains.  — Volcanoes  are  not  confined 
to  mountainous  regions,  for  they  are  found  also  in  the  ocean ; but 


Fig.  167.  — Cross  section  of  folded  mountains  in  Montana.  The  crests  of  the 
folds  have  been  worn  away  by  weathering  and  erosion.  ( U . S.  Geol.  Sur.  Bul- 
letin 611.) 


they  most  commonly  occur  in  regions  of  young  mountains.  Here 
the  crust  of  the  earth  is  much  fractured,  giving  opportunity  for  the 
escape  of  lava.  Here  movements  of  the  crust  are  taking  place, 
tremendous  pressure  and  great  heat  are  developed,  and  other  con- 
ditions favorable  to  volcanic  activity  exist.  Many  of  the  loftiest 
peaks  in  the  younger  mountain  ranges  are  volcanic  cones. 

Mountains  the  Skeletons  of  the  Continents.  — The  shape  of  a 
continent  is  much  influenced  by  the  direction  and  length  of  its 
fhountain  ranges,  as  may  be  seen  in  relief  maps.  The  moun- 
tain skeleton  of  South  America,  for  example,  consists  of  one  long, 
continuous  system  (the  Andes)  along  the  west  coast,  and  a plateau 
with  short  ranges  in  eastern  Brazil,  and  another  in  Venezuela  at  the 


FEATURES  OF  LAND;  ORIGIN  AND  INFLUENCE  229 


north.  The  broad  areas  between  these  mountains  are  plains  made 
of  the  sediments  carried  down  from  the  mountains.  The  shape 
of  South  America  is  very  closely  determined  by  its  mountains. 
Europe  has  many  ranges  and  spurs  extending  in  various 
directions ; one  range  forms  the  backbone  of  Scandinavia ; 
another  forms  Italy ; a mountainous  plateau  makes  the  Iberian 
peninsula ; the  Balkan  peninsula  is  due  to  ranges  and  spurs  extend- 


Fig.  168.  — Weathering  of  igneous  rocks  at  high  altitudes.  Note  the  accumula- 
tion of  weathered  material  on  the  slopes.  ( U.  S.  Geol.  Sur.) 

ing  southward ; and  the  British  Isles  were  formerly  a partially 
mountainous  peninsula  projecting  from  the  continent.  Most  large 
peninsulas  are  due  to  mountain  ranges  or  plateaus,  but  there  are 
exceptions,  such  as  Florida. 

The  Sculpturing  of  Mountains.  — As  soon  as  a part  of  the  earth’s 
crust  rises  above  the  surrounding  level,  it  is  attacked  by  the  agents 
of  weathering  and  erosion.  The  uplifting  of  the  rocks  fractures 
them,  and  the  weathering  agents  and  the  mountain  streams  ply 


230 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  169.  — Type  of  old,  well-rounded  mountains  of  the  southern  Appalachians  in  North  Carolina.  (U . S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


FEATURES  OF  LAND;  ORIGIN  AND  INFLUENCE  231 


their  destructive  work  to  better  advantage.  The  loosened  portions 
of  rock  creep  or  slide  or  are  washed  down  the  slopes,  and  the  face  of 
the  rock  is  exposed  anew  to  the  weather  (Fig.  168).  Thus,  moun- 
tains are  denuded  much  more  rapidly  than  plains  because  their 
steeper  slopes  are  not  able  to  retain  a covering  of  soil  and  vegeta- 
tion to  protect  them  from  further  attacks  of  the  weather. 

Mountain  Peaks  and  Passes.  — Mountain  peaks  (which  are  not 
due  to  volcanoes)  are  resistant  portions  of  the  ranges.  Wherever 


Fig.  170.  — Gracefully  rounded  mountains  and  rocky  land  characteristic  of  parts 
of  New  England.  ( Courtesy  of  B.  and  M.  R.  R.) 


the  mountain  is  much  fractured,  the  air,  water,  frost,  roots  of  trees, 
and  other  agents  of  waste  work  most  effectively,  and  in  such  places 
notches  and,  possibly,  passes  are  made,  leaving  the  more  solid  and 
resistant  rock  standing  up  in  the  form  of  peaks  (Fig.  167).  In  the 
notches,  streams  may  head,  and  flow  in  opposite  directions,  and  by 
their  headwater  erosion  they  may  still  further  lower  the  notch,  un- 
til it  becomes  a pass  across  the  range.  Such  a pass  may  be  used  by 
a railroad  in  crossing  the  mountains.  Most  of  the  wild  scenery  of 
the  mountains  arises  from  this  work  of  weather,  ice,  and  water  eat- 


232 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  1/1.  The  broad  plain  in  the  foreground  (Silverton,  Colo.)  is  partly  due  to  the  deposition  of  sediments  eroded 
from  the  mountains.  The  fan-like  form  of  the  deposits  is  evident.  (JJ . S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


FEATURES  OF  LAND;  ORIGIN  AND  INFLUENCE  233 


ing  away  portions  of  the  rocks  and  leaving  other  portions  towering 
upward  as  peaks,  domes,  and  spires  (Figs.  168,  169). 

Old  and  Young  Mountains.  — In  their  youth,  mountains  become 
sculptured,  as  described  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  Sharp  peaks, 
steep  slopes,  jagged  cliffs,  and  narrow  gorges  characterize  most 
young  mountains ; but  with  the  passing  of  time  the  notches  and 
valleys  broaden,  the  slopes  become  less  and  less  steep,  and  the 
peaks  are  rounded  off  (Fig.  170).  If,  during  this  process,  the  region 
is  not  uplifted,  and  the  denudation  continues  for  a great  length  of 
time,  the  highland  will  be  worn  down  to  a rolling  plain.  Such  a 
surface  is  called  a peneplain,  meaning  “almost  a plain.”  The  Blue 
Ridge  and  the  mountains  of  New  England,  for  example,  are  low, 
round-topped,  and  billowy  (Fig.  169),  because  they  are  very  old, 
while  the  Rockies  and  Sierra  Nevadas,  the  Alps  and  Himalayas, 
with  their  sharp  peaks,  deep  gorges,  and  precipitous  cliffs  are 
relatively  young  (Fig.  168). 

The  Influence  of  Mountains  on  Man  and  His  Activities  • 

Altitude  and  Temperature.  — On  an  average,  temperature  di- 
minishes one  degree  for  each  330  feet  of  ascent ; thus,  an  ascent  of  a 
mile  in  the  torrid  zone,  for  example,  becomes  equivalent  to  travel- 
ing poleward  800  to  1000  miles.  At  high  altitudes  the  atmosphere 
is  thin,  and  whatever  heat  the  land  receives  from  the  sun  is  rapidly 
radiated  back  into  the  air  and  out  into  space,  so  that  the  highest 
peaks  are  cold  and  snow-capped  the  year  round,  even  in  the  torrid 
zone.  Because  of  their  elevation,  plateaus  within  the  tropics  are 
cool,  and  people  find  them  agreeable  places  in  which  to  live.  In 
Mexico,  Colombia,  Venezuela,  Ecuador,  Peru,  and  Bolivia,  the 
capital  cities  and  most  of  the  other  cities  are  built  at  altitudes  of 
from  five  to  eight  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  In  India  the 
English  officials,  merchants,  and  others  who  are  able  to  do  so,  go 
to  the  mountains  during  the  hot  summer,  and  even  the  capital  or 
seat  of  government  is  temporarily  moved  there.  The  same  prac- 
tice is  followed  by  many  Americans  in  the  Philippines  and  by  the 
Dutch  in  Java.  In  short,  it  is  only  by  taking  advantage  of  the 


Fig-  172.  — A young  valley  (New  River,  West  Virginia),  eroded  in  the  Allegheny  plateau.  Note  the  V-shape  of  the  valley 
and  the  even  sky-line  formed  by  the  top  of  the  plateau.  ( U.  S.  Gaol.  Sur .) 


FEATURES  OF  LAND;  ORIGIN  AND  INFLUENCE  235 


coolness  of  the  mountains  and  plateaus  that  white  people  living  in 
the  tropics  can  retain  health  and  vigor. 

Rainfall  and  Agriculture.  — Winds  blowing  over  mountains  are 
forced  to  rise ; this  air  expands  and  becomes  cooled,  and  conse- 
quently has  to  precipitate  most  of  its  moisture  on  the  windward 
side  (Fig.  206).  For  example,  the  rainfall  on  the  west  slope  of 
the  Cascade  Mountains  in  Washington  is  several  times  as  great  as 
the  average  for  the  half  of  the  state  lying  east  of  these  mountains. 
By  their  direct  and  indirect  effects  the  mountains  of  western  United 
States  render  nearly  500,000,000  acres  of  our  country  unfit  for  ag- 
riculture ; this  region,  four  times  the  area  of  France,  has  a popula- 
tion of  less  than  5,000,000. 

Erosion  and  Overloading  of  Streams.  — As  previously  explained, 
weathering  and  stream  erosion  go  on  rapidly  in  mountains.  The 
streams  become  heavily  loaded  with  rock  waste  (Fig.  171),  which 
they  carry  to  the  chief  rivers,  overburdening  them,  silting  up  their 
channels  to  the  injury  of  navigation,  and  increasing  the  danger  of 
floods.  The  Platte,  Arkansas,  and  Missouri,  heading  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  carry  such  enormous  loads  of  silt  that  they  are  of 
scarcely  any  use  for  navigation.  It  is  well  to  note  in  passing  that 
most  of  the  sediments  and  sedimentary  rocks  which  form  the  great 
plains  of  the  earth  are  made  of  materials  eroded  from  the  moun- 
tains, and  that  the  rich  alluvium  which  the  Nile  and  other  rivers 
spread  over  their  flood  plains  is  mostly  brought  from  the  same 
source. 

Mountains  as  Forest  Reserves.  — When  man  takes  possession 
of  a new  land,  he  clears  the  forests  from  the  lowlands  in  order  to  use 
them  for  agriculture.  But  not  so  in  the  mountains  ; they,  by  their 
inaccessibility  and  unfitness  for  agriculture  have  little  attraction 
for  man,  and  therefore  they  become  a natural  timber  preserve 
from  which  he  may  supply  his  needs  when  the  more  accessible 
timber  is  gone.  Moreover,  these  mountain  forests  serve  a highly 
important  purpose  in  controlling  the  run-off  and  thus  checking 
what  might  be  disastrous  floods.  Our  government  is  buying  up 
large  tracts  of  forest  land  in  the  Appalachian  Mountains  to  be 
held  for  this  very  purpose. 


236 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  173.  — Iron-mining  operations  in  a mountain  valley  in  western  North  Carolina.  (U.  S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


FEATURES  OF  LAND ; ORIGIN  AND  INFLUENCE  237 


Mountains  and  Grazing.  — Although  mountains  are  unfavorable 
to  agriculture,  they  usually  contain  tracts  of  land  where  cattle, 
sheep,  and  goats  may  graze.  The  rugged  lands  of  Europe  support 
many  millions  of  such  animals  — cattle  in  Switzerland,  sheep  in 
Spain,  and  goats  in  Italy  and  the  Balkan  states.  Our  principal 
sheep-raising  states,  Montana  and  Wyoming,  are  both  moun- 
tainous. Wherever  the  land  is  too  rugged  for  cultivating  crops, 


Fig.  174.  — Bitter  Root  Mountains  in  Idaho.  Town  of  Wardner  in  the  valley. 

(C-  S-  Geol.  Sur.) 


men  turn  to  the  grazing  industries.  This  is  also  true  in  regions 
where  rainfall  is  too  light  for  growing  crops,  as  in  a great  part 
of  Australia. 

Mountains  and  Mining.  — In  the  mountain-building  process  the 
rocks  are  broken  and  cracks  penetrate  in  all  directions.  In  many 
instances  mountain  building  is  also  attended  by  volcanic  outbursts. 
The  heat  sets  underground  waters  and  vapors  in  motion,  and  these 
dissolve  deep-seated  minerals  and  carry  them  upward  to  the  sur- 
face, where  they  are  deposited  in  the  cracks  and  fissures  of  the 


238 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


rocks,  forming  mineral  veins,  as  described  in  an  earlier  chapter 
(page  100).  Later  the  vigorous  weathering  and  erosion  which 
take  place  in  mountains  bring  these  veins  into  view  and  pros- 
pectors discover  them ; thus  the  mountains  are  the  chief  sources 
of  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  many  other  metals.  There  are  ex- 
ceptions to  this  general  rule;  the  Alps,  the  Pyrenees,  and  our 


Fig.  175.  — A railroad  (the  Moffat  Road)  winding  its  way  over  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains west  of  Denver. 


own  Appalachians  are  rather  barren  in  metallic  minerals,  while 
mineral  deposits  are  found  in  non-mountainous  regions,  as, 
for  example,  the  lead  and  zinc  deposits  of  Wisconsin  and  Mis- 
souri. 

Mountains  as  Barriers.  — High  mountains  are  difficult  to  cross  ; 
animals,  birds,  and  native  plants  may  differ  considerably  on  oppo- 
site sides  of  a high  range.  The  building  of  roads  and  railroads 
across  mountains  is  difficult  and  expensive  (Fig.  175).  As  a result 


FEATURES  OF  LAND;  ORIGIN  AND  INFLUENCE  239 

only  two  good  roads  cross  the  Caucasus  Mountains,  and  only  a few 
cross  the  Pyrenees.  Throughout  its  length  of  5000  miles  only  one 
railroad  completely  crosses  the  Andes  chain.  One  of  the  serious 
drawbacks  to  the  development  of  the  Andean  countries  of  South 
America  is  the  enormous  difficulty  of  getting  from  the  Pacific  coast 
over  the  Andes  into  the  interior  of  these  countries.  For  example, 
a ton  of  coal  which  normally  costs  $10  or  $12  at  a port  of  Peru  or 
northern  Chile,  costs  from  $50  to  $80  a ton  when  it  reaches  interior 


Fig.  176.  - — Among  the  peaks  and  passes  of  the  Alps;  a Swiss  village  high  up  in 

the  mountains. 


Bolivia.  It  is  exceedingly  difficult  to  lead  armies  with  their  can- 
non, supply  wagons,  camp  equipment,  etc.,  over  mountains  to 
invade  the  countries  on  the  other  side.  So  great  are  the  advan- 
tages possessed  by  the  defenders  of  mountain  passes  and  roads 
that  invaders  frequently  find  it  impossible  to  dislodge  them.  For 
these  and  other  reasons,  mountain  ranges  are  good  boundary  lines 
between  nations. 

Mountains  and  Population.  — The  severe  climate,  scanty  soil, 
difficulties  of  travel  and  transportation,  and  limited  industries 
usually  deter  any  very  large  number  of  people  from  settling  in 


240 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


mountains.  In  ten  of  our  western  states  there  are  no  more  people 
than  live  in  New  York  City  alone.  The  more  level  parts  of  New 
York  State  have  an  average  density  of  population  more  than  20 
times  as  great  as  that  of  the  mountainous  parts.  The  plain  of 
northern  India  has  about  100  million  people,  while  an  equal 
area  in  the  mountainous  plateau  of  Tibet  just  north  has  not  even 


Fig.  177.  — A mountaineer’s  cabin  and  family  in  the  southern  Appalachians. 
In  many  instances  these  families  are  so  isolated  that  they  have  practically  no 
contact  with  the  outer  world.  ( Oeland .) 


one  million.  On  the  other  hand,  mountainous  Switzerland  is  more 
densely  peopled  than  lowland  Denmark,  and  in  the  tropical  part  of 
South  America  the  white  population  is  usually  more  dense  in  the 
highlands  than  in  the  sultry  lowlands. 

Peculiarities  of  Mountain  Peoples.  — Some  mountain  regions 
are  so  isolated  that  the  people  who  live  in  them  seldom  come  in 


FEATURES  OF  LAND;  ORIGIN  AND  INFLUENCE  241 

contact  with  people  from  the  outside.  They  retain  quaint,  old- 
fashioned  ways,  have  odd  customs,  superstitions,  and  modes  of 
speech,  dress  peculiarly,  and  preserve  ideas  and  practices  that  may 
have  disappeared  elsewhere  centuries  before.  Only  a few  of  many 
illustrations  can  be  given  here.  The  mountain  whites  of  the  South 
are  strikingly  unlike  the  people  outside  the  mountains  (Fig.  177). 
Many  of  them  have  little  education,  rarely  see  newspapers 
or  magazines,  dress 
in  homespun  and 
home-made  clothing, 
cling  to  old  super- 
stitions, are  suspi- 
cious of  strangers, 
and  use  many  words 
and  expressions  that 
have  passed  out 
of  use  elsewhere. 

Some  of  these  people 
never  saw  a trolley 
car  or  railway  train, 
a mowing  machine  or 
a steamboat. 

In  the  mountains 
of  Wales  there  are 
some  500,000  people  who  cannot  speak  or  understand  English, 
although  Wales  has  been  united  with  England  for  more  than 
500  years. 

In  the  Pyrenees  Mountains  live  a peculiar  people  numbering 
half  a million,  known  as  the  Basques.  They  and  their  ancestors 
have  been  there  so  long  that  no  reliable  trace  of  their  origin  can  be 
found.  Their  language  shows  no  connection  with  any  existing 
European  language.  France  and  Spain  have  been  invaded  and 
overrun  by  foreign  foes  time  after  time  ; wave  after  wave  of  inva- 
sion and  conquest  has  rolled  up  to  the  base  of  the  Pyrenees,  but  the 
Basques  in  their  mountain  retreat  have  remained  for  2000  years 
or  more  almost  untouched  by  any  of  these  changes. 


242 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


The  Caucasus  Mountains  are  a veritable  museum  of  peoples  and 
languages.  Almost  every  important  valley  shelters  a different 
tribe.  It  is  said  that  Jewish  families  in  the  Caucasus  still  give 
their  children  names  that  were  in  use  in  Israel  2500  years  ago  and 
which  have  long  since  dropped  from  use  elsewhere.  The  great 
difficulty  of  conquering  mountain  peoples  is  shown  by  the  fact  that 
Russia  was  able  to  subjugate  4,000,000  square  miles  in  Siberia 
before  the  tribes  of  the  Caucasus  were  brought  under  subjection. 
Such  mountains  are  nature’s  fortresses  into  which  remnants  of  de- 
feated or  oppressed  peoples  retreat  and  there  live  untouched  by  the 
influence  of  events  outside. 


Plateaus 

Definition  of  Plateau.  — Just  as  there  is  confusion  between  the 
terms  hill  and  mountain,  so  there  is  indefiniteness  in  the  terms 
plain  and  plateau.  For  instance,  at  the  eastern  base  of  the  Appa- 
lachians an  upland  less  than  2000  feet  in  elevation  is  called  the 
Piedmont  Plateau,  while  the  region  just  east  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains is  known  as  the  Great  Plains,  although  the  elevation  reaches 
5000  feet.  The  term  plateau  is  applied  to  a land  form  of  large 
area  and  considerable  elevation  (usually  some  thousands  of  feet) 
which  rises  rapidly  above  the  adjacent  land  on  one  or  more  sides. 
The  Great  Plains  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  have  no  such  rapid 
rise  on  any  side  and  that  may  account  for  their  classification  as 
plains. 

Types  of  Plateaus.  — The  Columbia  River  Plateau,  built  up  of 
many  layers  of  solidified  lava,  is  described  elsewhere.  The  Col- 
orado Plateau,  in  which  the  Grand  Canon  of  Arizona  has  been 
eroded,  is  made  of  many  beds  of  sedimentary  rocks ; these  were 
uplifted,  and,  though  a great  thickness  of  rock  has  since  been  re- 
moved by  erosion,  the  surface  of  the  plateau  still  has  an  elevation  of 
over  8000  feet.  On  the  western  side  of  the  Appalachian  highland  is 
the  Allegheny  Plateau.  Its  steep  eastern  edge  is  often  referred  to 
as  the  Allegheny  Mountains.  A part  of  this  plateau,  lying  in  New 


FEATURES  OF  LAND;  ORIGIN  AND  INFLUENCE  243 


York  just  west  of  the  Hudson  River,  has  an  elevation  of  over  4000 
feet,  and  is  there  called  the  Catskill  Mountains.  Into  the  Alle- 
gheny Plateau  rivers  have  eroded  a maze  of  steep-sided  valleys  — 
some  of  them  2000  feet  in  depth.  Between  certain  layers  of  rock 
are  beds  of  coal ; in  fact,  the  Allegheny  Plateau  from  Pennsylvania 
to  Alabama  is  the  greatest  coal-mining  region  of  the  United  States. 
In  West  Virginia,  for  example,  the  plateau  is  so  cut  into  great  hills 
and  valleys  that  the  region  appears  to  be  mountainous,  and  is 
usually  so  called  (Fig.  172). 

Arabia  is  a vast  desert  plateau,  and  Africa  is  a plateau  continent. 
The  loftiest  plateau  in  the  world  is  Tibet  in  southern  Asia,  rising  to 
an  elevation  of  15,000  feet  and  having  upon  it  mountain  ranges  that 
rise  14,000  feet  higher ; Mt.  Everest,  the  highest  of  the  Himalayas, 
reaches  29,002  feet.  It  becomes  evident,  then,  that  plateaus  are 
not  usually  flat-topped  table-lands,  although  some  of  them  would 
be  comparatively  flat  if  streams  had  not  cut  valleys  and  canons 
in  them. 

Life  on  High  Plateaus.  — In  the  temperate  zone,  high  plateaus 
are  cool  in  summer  and  bleak  in  winter.  They  are  often  windswept 
and  nearly  barren,  as  in  Arabia  and  Mongolia.  Some  of  the  larg- 
est plateaus  are  arid  or  semiarid ; the  great  desert  belt,  which  in- 
cludes central  and  southwestern  Asia  and  the  Sahara,  is  a belt  of 
arid  plateaus.  In  such  an  environment  life  is  hard.  Nomadic 
tribes,  with  flocks  and  herds,  move  from  place  to  place  in  search  of 
grass  and  water.  Settled  homes  are  the  exception ; law  and  gov- 
ernment are  weak,  and  robbery  and  raiding  are  common.  (Read 
Huntington’s  account  on  pages  302,  303.) 

It  has  been  pointed  out  that  in  tropical  lands  like  Mexico  and 
western  South  America,  the  plateaus  are  the  most  agreeable  and 
healthful  places  of  residence  and  contain  the  major  part  of  the 
population.  The  scarcity  of  rainfall,  however,  limits  agriculture 
and  prevents  any  very  great  advancement.  Most  plateaus  have 
been  uplifted  as  part  of  a mountain-building  process  and  so  are 
likely  to  have  rich  mineral  veins.  This  is  notably  true  in  Mexico 
and  South  America,  although  it  is  not  true  of  all  plateaus;  for 
example,  the  Piedmont  Plateau  of  our  southern  states. 


244 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  179.  — Mountains  and  plains  of  the  eastern  third  of  the  United  States. 
{Model  by  Lorenz , Madison , Wis.) 


FEATURES  OF  LAND;  ORIGIN  AND  INFLUENCE  245 


Plains 

Character.  — Some  plains  are  very  low  and  very  level,  while 
others  have  considerable  elevation  and  are  rolling  or  hilly.  But 
low  elevation  and  a generally  even  surface  are  implied  in  the  word 
plain. 

Coastal  plains  are  stretches  of  low  land,  more  or  less  sandy,  on 
the  coastal  borders  of  continents.  They  are  portions  of  the  ad- 
jacent sea  bottom  which  has  been  slightly  uplifted  and  added  to  the 


Fig.  180.  — A wheat  field  on  the  broad,  level  plain  of  the  valley  of  the  Red  River 
of  the  North  in  Minnesota  and  North  Dakota. 


land.  Such  a plain  extends  from  New  Jersey  to  Mexico  along  the 
Atlantic  and  Gulf  coast  of  North  America  (Fig.  179). 

Interior  plains.  — The  vast  plains  of  Prussia,  and  Siberia  and  of 
central  North  America  are  examples  of  extensive  regions  which 
were  once  submerged  beneath  the  sea.  During  their  submergence, 
sand,  clay,  and  other  sediments  were  deposited  in  broad  sheets. 
Later  these  were  uplifted  bodily  and  became  parts  of  the  conti- 
nents. It  has  been  pointed  out  (page  235)  that  mountains  fur- 
nish most  of  the  sediments  of  which  such  plains  are  made.  In- 
terior plains  and  coastal  plains  make  up  a large  part  of  Europe  and 
of  the  two  Americas. 

Alluvial  plains,  already  discussed  in  connection  with  rivers,  are 
made  of  the  alluvium  carried  by  streams,  and  deposited  in  deltas, 


246 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


flood  plains,  alluvial  fans,  etc.  Such  plains  are  commonly  found 
along  the  lower  courses  of  great  rivers,  e.g.,  the  Mississippi,  the 
Nile,  the  Ganges,  and  the  Yangtze  (Chapter  IX). 

Glacial  plains  are  those  made  by  the  deposits  of  continental  gla- 
ciers, as  in  the  upper  Mississippi  Valley  and  northern  Europe. 
They  are  sometimes  called  till  plains. 

Lake  plains  are  due  to  silt  deposited  on  the  beds  of  lakes  which 
no  longer  exist.  Large  plains  of  this  kind  are  rare,  but  small  ones 


Fig.  181.- — An  irrigated  valley  among  the  mountains  of  Colorado.  (<7.  5.  Bur. 

of  Soils.) 


are  common  in  regions  where  continental  glaciers  have  been  ; one  of 
the  best  examples  is  the  rich  plain  of  the  Red  River  of  the  North, 
the  bed  of  glacial  Lake  Agassiz  (Fig.  ISO). 

It  is  evident  that  alluvial,  glacial,  and  lake  plains  may  overlap 
or  rest  upon  other  kinds.  For  example,  that  of  Lake  Agassiz  rests 
upon  a glacial  plain,  which  in  turn  is  part  of  the  great  interior  plain 
of  North  America. 

Plains  with  Special  Names.  — The  prairies  are  the  grass- 
covered  plains  of  our  Middle  West.  They  were  treeless,  or  else 
had  trees  only  along  the  streams.  Sometimes  patches  of  prairie 


FEATURES  OF  LAND;  ORIGIN  AND  INFLUENCE  247 


Fig.  182.  — A state  that  is  almost  a continuous  plain,  in  the  heart  of  the  foremost 
agricultural  lands  of  the  world.  ( Model  by  Lorenz,  Madison,  TFfs.) 


248 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


and  of  woodland  were  interspersed.  There  are  similar  grassy 
plains  in  various  parts  of  the  world  called  by  special  names,  as,  for 
example,  llanos  in  Venezuela,  and  pampas  in  Argentina.  The 
frozen,  swampy  plains  of  the  Far  North  are  called  tundras,  and 
dry  plains  such  as  those  of  southern  Siberia  and  Russia  are 
called  steppes;  not  all  steppes,  however,  are  plains. 

Plains  in  Different  Climates.  — The  frozen  plains  of  northern 
Siberia,  Russia,  and  Canada  are  of  small  use  to  man.  They  yield 
him  furs,  but  little  else,  and  few  people  live  there ; these  are  the  cold 
plains.  In  Australia,  the  Sahara,  Patagonia,  and  Russian  Turke- 
stan there  are  desert  plains ; in  Brazil  the  vast  plain  of  the  Amazon 
is  a tropical  jungle,  so  moist,  hot,  and  unhealthful  that  white  men 
cannot  long  remain  there.  But  the  well-watered  plains  of  the  tem- 
perate zone,  with  their  deep  soil,  invigorating  climate,  and  ease  of 
travel,  are  regions  of  great  productiveness.  Here  the  chief  food 
crops  grow ; here  roads  and  railways  may  readily  unite  every  part 
of  the  plain  with  every  other,  and  facilitate  the  exchange  of 
products.  The  ease  of  travel  leads  to  the  exchange  of  ideas  and 
this  promotes  progress.  Such  plains  are  the  ones  referred  to  in 
the  following  contrasts. 

Plains  and  Mankind 

Mountains  and  Plains  Contrasted.  — (1)  Mountains  have  a 
great  variety  of  climate  in  relatively  small  areas,  while  plains  are 
likely  to  have  a uniformity  of  climate  over  a large  area. 

(2)  Mountains  tend  to  cause  heavy  rainfall  upon  small  areas, 
while  plains  cause  the  rainfall  to  be  distributed  widely. 

(3)  Mountain  streams  are  torrential  and  erode  the  land  rapidly, 
while  streams  on  the  plains  are  sluggish  and  often  deposit  more 
than  they  erode. 

(4)  Mountains  retard  the  movements  of  people  and  of  armies, 
and  hinder  the  building  of  railroads,  roads,  and  canals,  while 
plains  encourage  such  undertakings. 

(5)  Mountains  tend  to  isolate  their  inhabitants  and  keep  them 
secluded  and  unprogressive,  while  plains  lead  to  constant  inter- 


FEATURES  OF  LAND;  ORIGIN  AND  INFLUENCE  249 


mingling  of  people  and  to  that  exchange  of  ideas  which  causes 
progress. 

(6)  Mountains  are  favorable  to  the  preservation  of  forests,  while 
plains  favor  their  removal  to  make  way  for  agriculture. 

(7)  Mountainous  regions  are  likely  to  be  cut  up  into  small  na- 
tions, as  in  western  and  southern  Europe,  while  great  plains  are 
favorable  to  the  growth  of  large  nations,  of  which  Russia  is  a 
notable  example. 

(8)  Plains  are  suited  to  the  growing  of  the  great  food  crops,  and 
can  support  a large  population,  while  mountains  raise  little  food 
and  usually  support  a small  population. 

Summary 

Plateaus  are  large  areas  of  considerable  elevation  which  rise 
steeply  above  the  adjacent  land  on  one  or  more  sides.  High 
plateaus  are  likely  to  be  deeply  cut  by  gorges,  to  be  arid  or  semi- 
arid,  and  hence  lacking  in  population.  The  smaller  and  lower 
plateaus,  of  which  the  Allegheny  Plateau  is  an  example,  may  have 
abundant  rainfall  and  be  well  forested.  The  great  plateaus  are 
nearly  all  surmounted  by  higher  mountain  ranges  to  which  the 
aridity  is  in  part  due. 

Plains  are  of  various  origins : they  may  be  portions  of  the  sea 
bottom,  uplifted  and  added  to  the  continent  as  coastal  or  interior 
plains ; they  may  be  due  to  deposits  of  rivers  (alluvial  plains), 
or  of  glaciers  (glacial  plains),  or  of  lakes  (lake  plains). 

Where  the  temperature  and  rainfall  are  favorable,  plains  are 
the  ideal  places  for  man’s  activities.  Their  level  surface  makes 
agriculture  attractive,  and  makes  the  exchange  of  products  and 
of  ideas  convenient ; plains  oppose  clannishness  and  promote  unity 
among  the  people ; they  are  favorable  to  the  growth  of  large  na- 
tions and  to  the  spread  of  civilization,  but  they  are  easy  to  invade 
and  difficult  to  defend.  They  are  the  regions  from  which  the 
world’s  supply  of  food  must  mainly  be  drawn  — Russia,  Argentina, 
central  North  America,  and  the  smaller  plains  of  Hungary,  Ger- 
many, France,  and  India. 


250 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


The  earth’s  interior  has  undergone  a contracting  or  shrinking 
process  which  has  forced  parts  of  the  crust  upward  to  form  plateaus 
and  mountains,  and  lias  caused  other  portions  to  sink  and  form 
ocean  basins.  These  movements  of  the  crust  produce  breaks  or 
fractures  which  are  favorable  to  general  volcanic  activity.  The 
main  mountain  systems  form  the  skeletons  of  the  continents  and 
largely  determine  their  shape.  By  weathering  and  erosion,  moun- 
tains are  sculptured  into  ridges,  peaks,  domes,  passes,  gaps,  etc. 
But  as  they  grow  old  their  tall  peaks,  precipitous  cliffs,  and  sharp 
angles  change  to  rounded  summits,  gentler  slopes,  and  slowly  de- 
creasing altitude. 

Condensed  Summary  of  the  Influence  of  Mountains 

The  influence  which  mountains  exert  upon  man  and  his  activities 
is  one  of  the  most  positive  and  easily  discernible  of  geographic 
influences. 

Mountains  whose  general  elevation  is  low  or  whose  passes  are 
low  exert  only  a moderate  influence. 

In  estimating  the  influence  of  mountains  upon  a country,  con- 
sider what  the  conditions  would  be  if  the  mountain  area  were  a 
plain. 

1.  The  climate  of  a mountain  belt  is  made  colder  by  its  eleva- 
tion. One  mile  upward  equals  800  miles  poleward.  The  tropical 
Andean  countries  can  produce  practically  all  crops. 

2.  High  mountains  force  the  passing  winds  to  precipitate  their 
moisture  on  the  windward  slope,  producing  arid  or  desert  lands 
on  the  leeward  side.  Our  western  mountains  render  500,000,000 
acres  unfit  for  agriculture. 

3.  The  gradual  melting  of  mountain  glaciers  equalizes  the  sea- 
sonal flow  of  rivers,  thus  reducing  floods  and  aiding  navigation  and 
irrigation. 

4.  Excessive  weathering  and  erosion  in  mountains  often  over- 
loads a stream  to  the  detriment  of  navigation,  as  in  the  Missouri, 
or  to  the  benefit  of  alluvial  plains,  as  in  the  Nile. 


FEATURES  OF  LAND;  ORIGIN  AND  INFLUENCE  251 

5.  Mountains  supply  most  of  the  sediments  of  which  the  plains 
are  built  up. 

6.  Fissures  and  fractures  in  the  earth’s  crust  and  the  circulation 
of  mineral-carrying  waters  result  from  mountain  building.  Hence 
mountains  are  the  natural  home  of  metallic  veins  and  of  mining. 

7.  The  relative  inaccessibility  of  mountains  tends  toward  the 
preservation  of  their  forests,  thus  conserving  the  timber  supply, 
and  regulating  the  run-off. 

8.  Mountains  discourage  agriculture,  but  their  lower  slopes 
favor  grazing,  e.g.,  in  the  Rockies,  and  the  Alps. 

9.  The  rigorous  climate,  scanty  soil,  difficulties  of  travel,  and 
restricted  industries  of  mountains  attract  but  a scanty  population. 
About  the  same  number  of  people  live  in  our  ten  mountain  states 
of  the  West  as  live  in  New  York  City  alone. 

10.  Mountains  are  often  effective  barriers  to  the  intercourse 
of  people,  to  the  spread  of  population,  to  military  campaigns, 
and  to  the  building  of  roads  and  railways.  They  are  nature’s 
boundary  lines  for  nations. 

11.  Mountains  form  a retreat  for  vanquished  races;  they 
isolate  and  preserve  past  languages,  customs,  laws,  and  ideas. 

12.  The  isolation  of  mountain  life  accentuates  non-social 
qualities,  as  seen  in  the  clannishness  of  the  Scotch  mountaineer, 
the  democracy  of  the  Swiss,  the  insubordination  of  the  Basques 
and  the  tribes  of  the  Caucasus,  the  Tibetan’s  dislike  of  strangers, 
the  lawlessness  in  the  Balkans,  and  the  suspiciousness  and  family 
feuds  among  our  southern  mountaineers. 


EXERCISE  XVII 

1.  Why  are  parts  of  the  earth’s  crust  wrinkled  into  mountains? 

2.  Why  is  there  little  soil  on  mountain  slopes? 

3.  Why  are  high  mountain  tops  cold? 

4.  Why  does  weathering  proceed  rapidly  on  mountains? 

5.  Why  is  stream  erosion  very  active  in  mountains? 

6.  Why  does  a mountain  range  usually  develop  into  a line  of  peaks? 

7.  Why  are  mineral  veins  likely  to  be  found  in  mountains? 

8.  Why  are  mountains  unfavorable  to  agriculture? 


252 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


9.  Why  are  forests  likely  to  be  found  in  mountains  long  after  they  have 
been  cleared  from  the  near-by  plains? 

10.  Why  are  mountain  tribes  difficult  to  conquer? 

11.  Why  do  old  languages  and  customs  continue  longer  in  mountains 
than  on  plains? 

12.  Why  does  a high  mountain  range  make  a good  national  boundary? 

13.  Why  are  volcanoes  more  common  in  mountainous  regions  than  else- 
where ? 

14.  Why  are  earthquakes  frequent  in  young  mountains? 

15.  Why  are  glaciers  found  in  mountains  when  there  are  none  on  the  plains 
near  by? 

16.  Why  is  population  sparse  in  mountainous  regions? 

17.  Why  are  high  plateaus  usually  arid  ? 

18.  Why  are  valleys  and  canons  deeper  in  plateaus  than  in  plains? 

19.  Why  are  coastal  plains  usually  sandy? 

20.  Why  are  alluvial  plains  usually  fertile? 

21.  Why  do  glacial  plains  usually  contain  many  lakes  and  swamps? 

22.  Why  is  rainfall  more  evenly  distributed  over  plains  than  over  moun- 
tainous regions? 

23.  Why  are  plains  (generally)  well  suited  to  farming? 

24.  Why  do  large  plains  often  lead  to  nations  of  large  size? 

25.  Why  are  the  people  of  the  plains  usually  more  unified  than  mountain 
people? 


CHAPTER  XIII 


THE  ATMOSPHERE 

The  atmosphere  is  part  of  the  earth,  not  merely  an  envelope 
surrounding  it.  The  atmosphere  rotates  with  the  rest  of  the  earth 
and  travels  with  it  around  the  sun.  Light  as  it  is,  the  air  has 
weight  and  is  held  by  the  attraction  of  gravity.  Thirteen  cubic 
feet  of  ordinary  air  weigh  about  a pound. 

Composition.  — Moist  air  rarely  contains  more  than  one  or  two 
per  cent  of  water  vapor.  The  following  table  shows  the  average 
composition  of  dry  air  : 

Pee  Cent  of  the 
Atmospheke 

Nitrogen 78.00 

Oxygen 21. 00- 

Argon  1.00- 

Carbon  dioxide .03 

Hydrogen1 .01 

Function  of  the  Different  Parts.  — Oxygen  is  the  active  gas 
of  the  air ; life  is  impossible  without  it.  So  delicately  are  we  ad- 
justed to  the  proportion  of  oxygen  in  the  air  that  a small  reduction 
in  the  amount  makes  us  drowsy  and  a large  reduction  may  cause 
death.  Review  what  is  said  of  the  atmosphere  on  pages  3—5. 

Nitrogen  is  exceedingly  inert  or  inactive.  So  far  as  animal 
life  is  concerned  its  chief  function  seems  to  be  to  dilute  the  oxygen. 
Plants  require  nitrogen,  but  they  do  not  get  it  directly  from  the  air. 
As  explained  on  page  65,  certain  plants  (particularly  members  of 
the  clover  family)  are  able  to  store  it  in  usable  form  in  nodules 

1 It  is  believed  that  the  air  at  a great  height  (above  50  miles)  is  mainly  com- 
posed of  the  very  light  gas,  hydrogen,  which  can  barely  be  detected  in  the  lower 
air. 


253 


254 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


formed  by  soil  bacteria  on  the  roots.  Argon  is  much  like 
nitrogen,  and  is  not  known  to  serve  any  important  purpose  in 
the  atmosphere. 

Carbon  dioxide  (composed  of  carbon  and  oxygen)  is  exhaled  in 
the  breath  of  people  and  animals,  and  is  one  of  the  gases  given  off 
when  things  burn  or  decay.  Every  ton  of  coal  that  is  burned  pours 
into  the  air  nearly  three  tons  of  carbon  dioxide.  Plants  are  able 
to  take  the  carbon  from  the  carbon  dioxide  of  the  air  and  to  use  it 
in  building  up  their  tissues,  while  the  oxygen  is  (in  the  presence  of 
sunlight)  returned  to  the  air. 

Water  vapor  is  of  great  importance,  particularly  because  it 
supplies  the  rainfall,  without  which  there  could  be  no  life  on  the 
land.  It  gives  rise  to  clouds,  dew,  snow,  fog,  and  hail ; its  presence 
makes  the  atmosphere  a better  blanket  to  protect  us  from  the 
intense  heat  of  the  sun  during  the  day  and  to  prevent  the  rapid 
escape  of  heat  from  the  earth  at  night. 

Dust  in  the  atmosphere  varies  greatly  in  amount  at  different 
times  and  in  different  places.  Dust  and  bacteria  are  from  10 
to  20  times  as  abundant  in  the  air  of  cities  as  in  that  of  the  open 
country. 

Depth  of  the  Atmosphere.  — There  is  no  way  of  knowing  how 
far  the  air  extends  upward  beyond  the  lithosphere,  but  it  is  at 
least  300  miles,  and  probably  more.  However,  at  a height  of 
10  miles  the  air  is  too  thin  to  support  human  life,  and  at  50  miles 
(where  it  is  thought  to  be  nearly  all  hydrogen),  it  must  be  extremely 
thin  or  rare.  At  its  outer  margin  the  atmosphere  must  blend  so 
gradually  with  empty  space  that  no  boundary  between  them  could 
possibly  be  fixed. 

Pressure  and  Density.  — Since  the  air  has  weight,  it  presses 
down  upon  the  surface  of  the  land  and  sea  ; this  pressure  is  about  15 
pounds  upon  each  square  inch,  or  about  one  ton  on  each  square 
foot  at  sea  level.  Since  the  lower  air  supports  the  weight  of  all 
the  air  above  it,  this  lower  portion  of  the  air  is  compressed.  So 
great  is  this  compression  that  the  lower  air,  extending  up  to  an 
elevation  of  3.6  miles,  contains  one-half  of  the  total  atmosphere 
by  weight.  In  other  words,  if  we  ascend  a mountain  3.6  miles 


THE  ATMOSPHERE 


255 


above  the  sea,  we  shall  have  half  of  the  atmosphere  below  and  half 
above  our  level.  So  rare  is  the  atmosphere  on  the  highest  moun- 
tain tops  that  men  cannot  keep  alive  there.  Mt.  Everest  and 
others  of  the  high  peaks  of  the  Himalayas  have  never  been  sealed.1 
Explorers  cannot  sleep  at  these  high  altitudes,  and  in  this  rare  at- 
mosphere they  find  the  exertion  of  climbing  so  great  that  they  can 
scarcely  lift  one  foot  above  the  other. 

On  a hot,  sultry  day  when  the  air  is  full  of  moisture,  we  think 
the  air  is  heavy,  while  on  a clear,  cool  day  it  seems  light ; but  just 
the  opposite  is  true.  Water  vapor  is  lighter 
than  air  and  when  freely  mixed  with  the  at- 
mosphere, makes  the  latter  less  heavy. 

The  barometer  is  an  instrument  for  meas- 
uring the  pressure  or  weight  of  the  atmos- 
phere. The  essential  parts  of  a barometer  are 

(1)  a glass  tube  about  32  inches  in  length, 
closed  at  one  end  and  open  at  the  other,  and 

(2)  a cup  of  mercury.  The  glass  tube  is 
filled  with  mercury,  and  is  then  stood  upright 
with  the  open  end  in  the  cup  (Fig.  183).  The 
mercury  in  the  tube  will  sink  a little  until  it 
stands  about  30  inches  higher  than  the  surface 
of  the  mercury  in  the  cup,  while  the  upper 
(closed)  portion  of  the  tube  above  the  mercury 
will  be  entirely  empty ; that  is,  it  will  be  a 
vacuum. 

The  ordinary  barometer  differs  from  this 
only  in  details  (Fig.  184).  It  has  a graduated  scale  along  the 
tube,  marked  off  in  inches  and  fractions  of  an  inch,  so  that  an 
observer  may  tell  at  a glance  “ how  high  the  barometer  stands.”  2 

The  Principle  of  the  Barometer.  — Mercury  is  used  in  the 
barometer  because  it  is  the  heaviest  liquid,  and  does  not  freeze 

1 An  expedition  is  attempting  (1922)  to  reach  the  top  of  Mt.  Everest. 

2 The  Aneroid  Barometer  is  an  instrument  which  measures  atmospheric  pres- 
sure without  the  use  of  mercury  or  any  other  liquid ; it  is  shaped  like  a very  large 
watch  and  is  more  compact  and  convenient  to  carry  than  the  mercurial  ba- 
rometer. 


Fig.  183.  — Illustrat- 
ing the  principle  of 
the  barometer. 


Fig.  184.— 
A barom- 
eter. 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 

at  ordinary  winter  temperatures.  The  principle  of 
the  barometer  would  be  the  same  if  any  other  liquid 
were  used.  Water  might  be  employed  (in  warm 
weather),  but  in  that  case  the  glass  tube  must  be 
about  34  feet  long.  Since  the  atmosphere  exerts  a 
pressure  of  about  15  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  it  is 
evident  that  the  downward  pressure  upon  the  mercury 
in  the  cup  is  15  pounds  on  each  square  inch,  and  this 
downward  pressure  of  the  air  balances  a column  of 
mercury  about  30  inches  high  (equal  to  a column  of 
water  about  34  feet  high)  in  the  tube  of  the  barom- 
eter. If,  for  any  reason,  the  pressure  of  the  air  upon 
the  mercury  in  the  cup  changes,  the  mercury  in  the 
tube  rises  or  sinks.  If,  for  instance,  the  atmospheric 
pressure  diminishes  one-thirtieth,  the  mercury  in  the 
tube  sinks  one- thirtieth.  Thus,  by  means  of  the 
barometer,  we  can  measure  changes  in  the  pressure 
or  weight  of  the  atmosphere.  The  word  barometer 
means  pressure  measure,  just  as  thermometer  means 
heat  measure. 

Uses  of  the  Barometer.  — If  we  ascend  a moun- 
tain, carrying  such  a barometer  with  us,  we  shall 
find  that  the  mercury  in  the  glass  tube  gradually 
sinks  as  we  go  higher  up  the  mountain.  In  this 
way  the  altitudes  of  places  can  be  measured ; 
for  this  purpose  the  aneroid  barometer  is  conven- 
ient. 

Important  changes  in  the  weather  are  preceded, 
accompanied,  and  followed  by  changes  in  atmos- 
pheric pressure.  The  laws  governing  these  changes 
are  so  well  understood  that  the  weather  can  be  par- 
tially foretold  by  the  action  of  the  barometer.  All 
weather  predictions  sent  out  by  the  U.  S.  Weather 
Bureau  stations  are  based  upon  observations  of  the 
barometer  made  at  many  stations  and  telegraphed 
daily  to  other  stations. 


THE  ATMOSPHERE 


257 


Isobars  are  lines  drawn  on  a map  connecting  places  of  equal 
atmospheric  pressure  (Fig.  196). 

Heat  in  the  Atmosphere 

How  the  Atmosphere  Is  Warmed.  — The  sun  is  the  source  of 
practically  all  of  our  heat.  It  sends  out  or  radiates  waves  of  energy 
which  travel  outward  from  the  sun  in  all  directions  through  space, 
and  a minute  fraction  (one  two-billionth)  is  received  by  the 
earth.  The  waves  of  energy,  usually  called  rays,  pass  through 
space  and  enter  our  atmosphere ; some  of  their  heat  is  absorbed 
directly  by  the  air,  but  the  larger  part  of  it  passes  through  the  air 
and  is  absorbed  by  the  land  and  water.  During  the  night  some  of 
this  heat  is  radiated  back  into  the  atmosphere  and  much  of  it 
escapes  into  outer  space.  Heat  is  also  constantly  radiated  back 
into  the  air  from  the  earth  during  the  day.  While  the  air  absorbs 
some  heat  directly  from  the  sun’s  rays,  it  is  warmed  still  more  by 
the  waves  which  are  radiated  back  from  the  earth. 

The  Air  as  a Blanket.  — Clear  air  permits  heat  waves  to  pass 
through  it  readily,  but  clouds  and  even  invisible  moisture  retard 
them.  Thus,  the  atmosphere  acts  as  a blanket  which  tempers 
the  heat  of  the  sun  during  the  day  and  checks  the  rapid  escape  of 
heat  from  the  earth  at  night.  This  benefits  man  in  important 
ways.  It  is  estimated  that  the  temperature  of  the  land  would  fall 
at  night  to  320°  below  zero  F.  if  there  were  no  atmosphere.  It 
is  believed  that  on  the  moon,  where  there  is  no  atmosphere,  the 
temperature  rises  far  above  the  boiling  point  of  water  during  the 
moon’s  day  and  falls  more  than  a hundred  degrees  below  zero  dur- 
ing its  night.  The  heat  of  day  and  the  cold  of  night  on  the  earth 
would  be  much  more  extreme  if  our  atmosphere  were  thinner  or 
contained  less  moisture  and  carbon  dioxide. 

Convection.  — Warming  the  air  causes  it  to  expand  and  thus 
to  become  lighter,  and  being  lighter,  it  tends  to  rise.  This  tend- 
ency of  warm  air  to  rise  and  cool  air  to  sink  causes  a circulation 
called  convection.  A similar  circulation  is  started  when  a dish  of 
water  or  bod}'  of  water  is  heated.  Convection  currents  both  in  air 


258 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


and  in  water  are  a highly  important  means  of  distributing  heat. 
By  means  of  these  convection  currents,  including  the  winds,  warm 
air  and  cool  air  are  being  continually  mixed,  usually  to  the  comfort 
and  benefit  of  man. 

Day  and  Night  Temperatures.  — As  a rule,  the  coldest  part  of 
the  night  is  shortly  before  sunrise,  for  the  dark  part  of  the  earth 
has  received  no  heat  since  sunset  and  has  been  radiating  heat  all 
night.  At  sunrise  this  part  of  the  earth  begins  to  receive  and 
absorb  heat,  and  continues  to  absorb  it  during  the  forenoon 
and  until  about  2 p.m.  in  winter,  and  4 p.m.  in  summer,  when 
the  warmest  part  of  the  day  is  reached.  The  earth  is  then 
radiating  heat  back  into  the  air  with  the  greatest  intensity  of  the 
day;  after  that  time  (2  to  4 p.m.),  the  temperature  grows  cooler. 
Thus  the  hottest  part  of  the  day  lags  behind  the  noon  hour ; and  for 
a similar  reason  the  hottest  part  of  summer  lags  behind  the  sum- 
mer solstice  (June  21). 

Water  in  the  Atmosphere 

Vapor  and  Water.  - The  atmosphere  is  never  absolutely  dry, 
but  the  amount  of  water  vapor  which  it  contains  varies  from  day 
to  day  and  from  place  to  place.  Water  vapor  itself  is  invisible,  but 
when  it  is  cooled  sufficiently  the  vapor  condenses  into  droplets  or 
drops  of  icater  and  these  are  visible.  Condensation  is  the  change  of 
invisible  water  vapor  to  visible  water,  due  to  cooling. 

Evaporation.  — At  ordinary  temperatures  water  is  a liquid. 
When  the  temperature  is  raised  to  212°  F.,  water  boils  (at  sea  level) 
and  passes  into  steam  or  vapor.  It  also  passes  sloidy  into  vapor  at 
temperatures  much  below  212°  F.  Everybody  knows  that  clothes 
dry  on  the  line,  that  mud  “dries  up,”  and  that  pools  of  water  evap- 
orate in  the  sun  and  wind.  Evaporation  is  the  process  by  which 
water  becomes  vapor  and  passes  into  the  air. 

Humidity.  — On  a sultry  day  in  summer,  the  air  is  spoken  of  as 
being  very  humid,  or  moist.  A cubic  yard  of  air  at  80°  F.  can  hold 
a certain  amount  of  water  vapor ; at  70°,  it  can  hold  less,  and  at  90° 
more.  In  an  ordinary -sized  schoolroom,  say  20  feet  square  and 


THE  ATMOSPHERE 


259 


15  feet  high,  at  70°  F.  the  air  can  hold  about  6 pounds  of  water 
vapor.  The  actual  amount  of  vapor  which  a certain  body  of  air 
holds  is  called  its  absolute  humidity.  This  is  usually  measured  in 
grains  per  cubic  foot ; for  example,  10  grains  of  water  vapor  per 
cubic  foot  of  air. 

Air  which  contains  75  per  cent  of  the  water  vapor  that  it  is  ca- 
pable of  holding  at  that  temperature  is  said  to  have  a relative  humidity 


Fig.  185.  — Cirrus  clouds. 


of  75  per  cent.  Relative  humidity  is,  therefore,  the  percentage 
which  the  amount  of  water  actually  in  the  air  forms  of  the  amount 
which  the  air  coidd  hold  at  that  temperature. 

Saturation.  — The  warmer  the  air,  the  more  moisture  it  can 
hold.  When  air  contains  all  the  moisture  it  can  hold  at  that 
temperature,  it  is  said  to  be  saturated.  So  long  as  the  air  is  not 
saturated,  its  moisture  remains  invisible,  but  when  it  passes  the 
point  of  saturation,  some  of  the  water  vapor  condenses  and  becomes 
visible  in  the  form  of  clouds,  mist,  fog,  rain,  snow,  or  dew. 


260 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


The  dew  point  is  the  temperature  at  which  air  becomes  satu- 
rated, that  is,  reaches  the  point  where  it  contains  all  the  moisture 
that  it  can  hold.  If  the  air  becomes  any  cooler,  some  of  the  water 
vapor  in  it  will  condense.  If  we  breathe  upon  a cold  pane  of  glass, 
for  example,  the  breath  is  quickly  cooled  below  the  dew  point, 
part  of  the  moisture  in  the  breath  condenses  and  forms  a film  of 
water  on  the  glass.  If  the  glass  were  as  warm  as  the  breath,  no 
such  film  would  form.  The  ice  pitcher  or  ice-water  tank  cools  be- 
low the  dew  point  the  air  that  touches  it,  and  the  water  vapor  in 
the  air  is  condensed  on  the  outside  of  the  pitcher  or  tank. 

It  will  be  seen  that  the  dew  point  is  not  a fixed  temperature,  but 
is  variable.  If  the  air  is  hot  and  full  of  moisture,  the  dew  point 
will  be  high,  say  at  80°  or  85°  F.,  but  if  the  air  is  relatively  dry  it 
will  need  to  be  cooled  many  degrees  before  the  point  of  saturation 
(dew  point)  is  reached,  perhaps  to  35°  or  40°  F. 

Clouds 

Cause  of  Clouds.  — The  upper  air  is,  as  a rule,  cooler  than  that 
near  the  earth.  Upward-moving  currents  of  air  expand  and  are 
thereby  cooled,  and  the  moisture  is  condensed  into  tiny  droplets 
which  become  visible,  yet  are  light  enough  to  float  in  the  air.  This 
visible  water  vapor,  floating  at  high  altitudes,  forms  clouds.  They 
are  easily  blown  before  the  wind,  constantly  changing  their  shape, 
and  often  dissolving  under  the  warming  influence  of  the  sun  or  in 
warm  air  currents. 

Kinds  of  Clouds.  — Clouds  are  classified  into  four  principal 
types : (1)  Fleecy  white  clouds  at  very  high  altitudes  are  called 
cirrus,  meaning  hairlike;  they  are  8 or  10  miles  high  and  consist 
of  tiny  crystals  of  frozen  mist  (Fig.  185).  (2)  Stratus  clouds  are 

those  which  lie  in  long,  nearly  horizontal  bands  or  layers  one  above 
the  other.  They  are  seldom  more  than  a mile  or  two  above  the 
earth  and  often  cover  a considerable  part  of  the  sky  (Fig.  186). 
(3)  Cumulus  clouds  are  the  great  heaps  of  cloud  which  look  much 
like  piles  of  fluffy  cotton  or  wool.  They  often  form  quickly  on  a 
summer’s  day,  assuming  picturesque  shapes  and  taking  on  rich 


THE  ATMOSPHERE 


261 


colors  at  sunset  (Fig.  187).  (4)  Nimbus  clouds  are  the  rain  clouds. 

They  are  dense  and  dark  and  threatening.  They  are  usually  only 
a mile  or  two  high  and  do  not  last  long. 

Colors  of  the  Clouds.  — Even  the  blackest  clouds  are  bright  and 
shining  on  the  side  toward  the  sun.  “The  darkest  cloud  has  a 
silver  lining.”  The  dark  clouds  are  black  only  because  they  are 
too  dense  for  the  sun  to  shine  through.  Other  clouds  are  white 
because  the  sunlight  passes  through  them,  and  the  rays  are 


Fig.  186.  — Stratus  clouds. 


scattered  or  diffused,  as  they  are  in  passing  through  ground  glass. 
The  brilliant  colors  of  the  clouds  at  sunset  are  due  to  the  action 
of  the  atmospheric  vapor  and  dust  upon  the  rays  of  the  sun.  Sun- 
light is  made  up  of  all  the  colors  of  the  rainbow,  and  when  beams  of 
sunlight  pass  through  the  cloud  particles  at  certain  angles,  the  rays 
of  light  are  separated  into  their  various  colors  and  give  us  the 
beautiful  hues  of  the  sunset. 

Fog  is  really  cloud  stuff  floating  near  the  surface  of  the  land  or 
water.  It  is  formed  when  moist  air  is  cooled.  Near  Newfound- 
land the  warm  Gulf  Stream  and  the  cold  Labrador  current  come 
close  together ; the  warm  air  over  the  Gulf  Stream  is  mixed  with 
the  cold  air  over  the  Labrador  current  and  great  banks  of  fog  are 
produced.  Dust  particles  and  smoke  particles  form  tiny  centers 


262  HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  187.  — Cumulus  clouds. 


Fig.  188.  — Clouds  floating  in  valleys  below  the  mountain  tops,  New  England. 
( Courtesy  of  B.  and  M.  R.  R.) 


THE  ATMOSPHERE 


263 


upon  which  moisture  condenses  and  produces  fog.  The  London 
fogs  are  believed  to  be  in  part  due  to  this  cause. 

Dew  and  Frost. — The  dew  does  not  “fall”;  after  sunset,  in 
summer,  the  ground  cools  rapidly  and  soon  the  grass  and  shrubs 
are  cool  enough  to  con- 
dense the  moisture  in 
the  air  which  touches 
them,  and  the  mois- 
ture which  they  them- 
selves exhale.  The 
thin  leaves  of  the 
grass  and  plants  not 
only  exhale  moisture, 
but  they  also  expose 
much  surface  to  the 
air,  and  cool  quickly, 
and  so  are  the  first 
objects  to  become  wet 
with  dew.  Wood  is  a 
conductor  of 
and  therefore 
slowly.  A 
sidewalk  may 
no  dew  when 


Fig.  189.  — Photographs  of  snowflakes.  Note  the 
characteristic  hexagonal  form.  (Photos  by  Bentley.) 


poor 
heat 
cools 
board 
collect 

the  grass  on  either  side 
is  dripping  wet.  Iron  and  other  metals  are  good  conductors  of 
heat ; they  cool  rapidly  and  often  collect  dew  early  in  the  even- 
ing. 

The  moisture  that  collects  on  the  outside  of  a glass  of  ice 
water  is  actual  dew ; so  also  is  the  moisture  which  collects  on  the 
window  pane.  The  white  frost  that  appears  on  objects  on  cool 
autumn  mornings  is  frozen  vapor  which  would  have  appeared  as 
dew  if  the  temperature  had  not  been  at  32°  F.  or  lower. 

Rain  is  due  to  the  rapid  condensation  of  water  vapor  in  the  upper 
air.  We  do  not  expect  “rain  from  a cloudless  sky,”  because  the 
cloud  is  an  intermediate  step  between  vapor  and  rain.  The  warm 


264 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


air  of  summer  is  able  to  hold  a large  amount  of  water  vapor.  When 
this  warm,  moist  air  rises  and  cools,  clouds  form,  and  if  condensa- 
tion proceeds  far  enough  the  tiny  droplets  unite,  form  into  drops, 
and  rain  follows.  Rainfall  and  snowfall  are  often  referred  to  as 
'precipitation. 

Snow  is  not  frozen  rain ; it  is  frozen  vapor.  Snowflakes  form 
directly  from  water  vapor  without  passing  through  the  liquid  state. 


Pig.  190.  • — Hailstones,  actual  size.  Note  the  interior  structure. 

Strangely  enough,  perfect  snowflakes  (which  are  ice  crystals)  al- 
ways have  six  points  or  six  angles.  Many  hundreds  of  snow- 
flakes have  been  photographed,  and  they  are  always  hexagonal 
(Fig.  189). 

Hail  is  less  common  than  rain  because  hail  cap  form  only  under 
unusual  conditions.  If  a large  hailstone  is  cut  in  two,  it  is  found 
to  be  made  up  of  a snowy  center  inclosed  by  several  shells  of  ice, 
like  the  formation  of  an  onion  (Fig.  190).  Large  hailstones  form 


THE  ATMOSPHERE 


265 


only  when  the  upper  air  is  in  violent  commotion ; a snowflake  or 
frozen  raindrop  is  caught  in  an  upward-moving  air  current,  carried 
up,  then  falls  toward  the  earth,  and  is  again  caught  in  a rising 
current  and  carried  upward,  thus  traversing  alternately  cool  and 
warm  layers  of  air  and  adding  film  after  film  of  ice.  In  rare  cases, 
hailstones  as  large  as  small  eggs  are  formed.  Hailstorms  are 
often  destructive  to  growing  crops  and  farmers  sometimes  carry 
hail  insurance. 

The  Main  Facts  about  the  Atmosphere  Summarized 

The  atmosphere  is  as  much  a part  of  the  earth  as  is  the  land  or 
the  water.  It  consists  of  a mixture  of  about  78  per  cent  nitrogen, 
21  per  cent  oxygen,  and  small  amounts  of  argon,  carbon  dioxide, 
water  vapor,  and  dust.  Oxygen  is  the  active,  life-giving  element 
of  the  air;  it  is  the  cause  of  decay  and  combustion.  Nitrogen 
dilutes  the  oxygen ; it  is  required  by  plants,  but  they  cannot  take 
it  directly  out  of  the  air  ; carbon  dioxide  is  also  essential  to  plants, 
and  is  taken  directly  from  the  air ; water  vapor  supplies  dew, 
snow,  fog,  clouds,  and  rain. 

The  atmosphere  has  weight,  and  the  lower  air  is  so  compressed 
by  the  weight  of  the  air  above  it,  that  one-half  of  all  the  air,  by 
weight,  forms  a bottom  “layer”  only  3.6  miles  deep.  The  high 
atmosphere  is  very  thin  or  rare.  At  sea  level  the  atmospheric 
pressure,  due  to  the  weight  of  the  air,  is  about  15  pounds  to  the 
square  inch  or  one  ton  to  the  square  foot. 

The  barometer  measures  atmospheric  pressure ; it  is  used  for 
measuring  elevations  and  is  also  one  of  the  principal  instruments 
used  by  weather  forecasters. 

The  air  is  warmed  by  the  sun’s  rays  as  they  pass  through  it, 
but  it  is  warmed  still  more  by 'the  heat  radiated  back  by  the  land 
and  water.  The  atmosphere  acts  as  a blanket  inclosing  the  rest 
of  the  earth  and  protecting  it  from  the  intense  rays  of  the  sun  by 
day,  and  checking  the  rapid  loss  of  heat  from  the  earth  at  night. 

The  warmer  the  air,  the  more  water  vapor  it  can  contain.  The 
air  is  said  to  be  saturated  when  it  contains  all  the  water  vapor  it 


266 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


can  hold  at  that  temperature.  If  air  is  cooled,  its  capacity  for 
holding  water  is  diminished,  and  when  the  point  of  saturation  (the 
dew  point)  is  reached,  the  invisible  vapor  condenses  into  fog, 
cloud,  rain,  dew,  etc.  Frost,  snow,  and  hail  are  formed  when  the 
temperature  is  at  or  below  the  freezing  point,  32°  F. 

Clouds  are  bodies  of  condensed  vapor  floating  in  the  upper 
air.  Their  height  varies  all  the  way  from  less  than  one  mile  to 
8 or  10  miles ; the  highest  clouds  are  fluffy  crystals  or  frozen  mist. 
Fog  is  cloud  stuff  at  a low  elevation.  Dew  collects  mainly  on 
grass  and  other  low  vegetation,  partly  because  they  lose  their 
heat  quickly  in  the  evening  and  partly  because  vegetation  itself 
exhales  moisture.  The  film  of  moisture  which  often  collects  on 
cold  glass  or  metals  is  condensed  from  the  air  which  comes  in  con- 
tact with  these  objects.  Rain  is  due  to  the  rapid  cooling  of  ascend- 
ing air  and  the  resulting  condensation  of  its  vapor.  If  the  tem- 
perature is  at  32°  F.  or  lower,  the  vapor  turns  directly  to  snow. 
Hail  is  frozen  rain,  formed  under  somewhat  unusual  conditions. 


EXERCISE  XVIII 


Saturation 

Convection 

Density- 

Atmospheric  pressure 
Dew  point 


I.  Give  the  meaning  of  the  following  terms  : 

1 . Barometer  6. 

2.  Evaporation  7. 

3.  Condensation  8. 

4.  Radiation  9. 

5.  Precipitation  10. 

II.  Give  the  principal  cause  or  causes  for  each  of  the  following : 

1.  Rising  and  falling  of  the  barometer 

2.  The  blackness  of  storm  clouds 

3.  The  sunset  colors 

4.  The  fogs  near  Newfoundland 

5.  The  clouds  around  high  mountain  peaks 

6.  The  dissolving  or  disappearance  of  clouds 

III.  Twenty-five  “Whys”  : 

1.  Why  is  the  atmosphere  to  be  regarded  as  a part  of  the  earth? 

2.  Why  is  the  lower  atmosphere  more  dense  than  the  upper? 

3.  Why  is  the  water  vapor  of  the  atmosphere  of  great  importance  to 
man? 


4.  Why  is  mercury  instead  of  some  other  liquid  used  in  the  barometer? 

5.  Why  may  the  barometer  be  employed  in  ascertaining  the  altitude  of 
places  ? 


THE  ATMOSPHERE 


267 


6.  Why  does  the  dark  side  of  the  earth  cool  during  the  night? 

7.  Why  does  it  cool  more  rapidly  on  a clear  night  ? 

8.  Why  does  the  atmosphere  have  the  effect  of  a blanket  around  the 
rest  of  the  earth? 

9.  Why  does  the  surface  of  the  moon  undergo  great  extremes  of  tem- 
perature? 

10.  Why  does  air  become  lighter  as  it  becomes  warmer? 

11.  Why  does  our  breath  show  on  a cold  winter’s  day? 

12.  Why  do  clouds  form? 

13.  Why  do  clouds  constantly  change  their  shape? 

14.  Why  does  dew  form? 

15.  Why  does  it  form  more  quickly  on  grass  than  on  the  sidewalk? 

16.  Why  does  dew  form  more  abundantly  on  a clear  night  than  on  a 
cloudy  night? 

17.  Why  does  fog  form? 

18.  Why  is  fog  over  the  land  more  likely  to  appear  in  the  evening  or 
morning  than  in  the  daytime? 

19.  Why  does  a film  of  moisture  form  on  the  outside  of  a glass  of  ice 
water? 

20.  Why  does  “steam”  sometimes  collect  on  a person’s  eyeglasses  when 
he  enters  a warm  house  in  winter? 

21.  Why  do  we  not  expect  rain  from  a clear  sky? 

22.  Why  does  precipitation  sometimes  take  the  form  of  snow  and  some- 
times of  rain? 

23.  Why  are  hailstorms  less  frequent  than  rainstorms  ? 

24.  Why  does  not  the  cooling  of  the  upper  atmosphere  always  cause  rain 
or  snow  ? 

25.  Why  is  fog  likely  to  occur  in  the  vicinity  of  cities? 


CHAPTER  XIV 


WINDS  AND  STORMS 

How  Differences  of  Temperature  Cause  the  Movement  of 
Air.  — If  an  outside  door  of  a house  is  opened  on  a cold  day,  there 
is  an  outflow  of  warm  air  at  the  top  of  the  doorway  and  an  inflow  of 


Fig.  191.  — Showing  the  circulation  of  the  air  in  a room  containing  a stove. 
(After  Tarr  and  McMurry.) 

cold  air  at  the  bottom.  (Test  this.)  The  inflowing  cold  air  is 
heavier  than  the  air  of  the  room  and  pushes  it  up  and  out.  A stove 
in  a room  warms  the  air  near  it,  causing  it  to  expand  and  so  to 

268 


WINDS  AND  STORMS 


269 


become  lighter ; the  cooler  air  flows  in  toward  the  stove,  becomes 
warmed,  and  in  turn  rises,  thus  setting  up  convection  currents,  and 
the  circulation  causes  the  entire  room  to  become  warm  (Fig.  191). 

Relation  of  Temperature  and  Pressure  to  Wind.  — Since  cold  air 
is  heavier  than  warm,  a region  of  cool  or  cold  air  is  one  of  greater 
air  pressure,  and  a region  of  warm  air  is  one  of  less  air  pressure,  or 
low  pressure.  Toward  such  a region  the  heavier  air  on  any  side 
flows,  causing  winds.  It  is  a basic  principle  that  air  moves  toward 
regions  of  loio  pressure  and  away  from  regions  of  high  pressure. 

How  Winds  Are  Named.  — A north  wind  is  one  that  blows  from 
the  north ; a southeast  wind  is  one  that  blows  from  the  southeast, 
etc.  Winds  are  named  according  to  the  direction  they  blow /row. 

The  Cause  of  Wind  Temperatures.  — The  air  over  a warm  body 
of  water  or  land  absorbs  heat  from  it  and  becomes  warmer.  Air 
over  a cold  body  of  water  or  land  imparts  heat  to  it,  and  itself  be- 
comes cooler.  Thus,  in  either  case,  the  air  tends  to  take  on  a 
temperature  similar  to  that  of  the  land  or  water  upon  which  it 
rests.  Air  is  capable  of  holding  and  carrying  a large  amount  of 
heat ; it  parts  with  this  heat  gradually  as  it  blows  over  a cool  re- 
gion, or  absorbs  heat  gradually  as  it  blows  over  a warm  region. 
Thus,  winds  from  the  south  bring  heat  which  they  previously 
absorbed ; and  winds  from  the  north  take  up  heat  as  they  pass, 
making  the  region  cooler. 

Air  Drainage.  — On  summer  nights,  the  cool  air  of  the  hills  flows 
down  the  hillsides  into  the  valleys,  and  forces  the  warm  air  in  the 
valleys  to  rise.  Thus  the  low  ground  gets  the  cool  air  and  may 
have  frost,  while  the  higher  ground  gets  the  lighter  warm  air 
and  may  escape  frost.  This  principle  of  air  drainage  is  important 
to  fruit  growers.  Orchards  and  vineyards  are  usually  safer  on  the 
slopes  of  hills  or  even  on  the  summits,  if  not  too  high,  than  in  the 
valley  bottoms. 

Land  and  Sea  Breezes.  — Land  warms  and  cools  more  rapidly 
than  water.  During  a summer  day  the  land  along  the  coast  be- 
comes warmer  than  the  adjacent  ocean,  and  the  cooler  air  from  the 
sea  flows  in,  giving  a cool,  refreshing  sea  breeze.  At  night  the  land 
cools  more  rapidly  than  the  sea,  and  soon  after  sunset  the  air  over 


270 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


the  sea  is  warmer 
than  that  over  the 
land  and  a breeze 
flows  out  to  sea,  giving 
a land  breeze.  The 
land  breeze  continues 
until  after  sunrise, 
when  a reversal  grad- 
ually takes  place. 
Such  breezes  affect 
the  land  only  a short 
distance  (seldom  more 
than  10  or  15  miles) 
back  from  the  shore. 
Similar  breezes, 
though  not  so  well 
developed,  occur  near 
lakes.  These  cooling 
breezes  are  one  of 
the  attractions  which 
draw  people  to  the 
seashore  and  to  lake 
shores  in  summer. 

The  Monsoons.  — 
These  are  land  and 
sea  breezes  on  a large 
scale ; they  shift  with 
the  change  of  the  sea- 
sons instead  of  with  the 
change  of  night  and 
day.  Monsoons  exist 
in  many  parts  of  the 

world  but  they  are  most  perfectly  developed  in  southern  and  south- 
eastern Asia,  including  India,  part  of  China  and  Japan,  and  the  ad- 
jacent ocean  (Fig.  192).  In  our  summer  when  the  sun  is  north  of 
the  equator,  the  land  of  Asia  becomes  warmer  than  the  sea,  and  an 


Very  light 


Light 


Moderate  Heavy  Very  heavy 


Fig.  192.  — Upper  figure,  — direction  of  Monsoon 
winds  and  distribution  of  rainfall  in  India  during 
the  winter;  lower  figure,  — the  same  during  the 
summer. 


WINDS  AND  STORMS 


271 


Fig.  193.  — Prevailing  winds  of  the  earth.  ( After  Tarr  and  McMurry.) 


272 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


ocean  wind  sets  in  from  a general  southerly  direction,  carrying 
much  moisture  with  it.  The  monsoon  winds  are  of  utmost  impor- 
tance in  India,  where  the  summer  or  wet  monsoon  begins  in  June 
and  continues  until  September.  In  our  winter  when  the  sun  moves 
south  of  the  equator,  central  Asia  becomes  colder  than  the  Indian 
Ocean  and  for  about  three  or  four  months  the  monsoon  blows  from 
the  land  to  the  sea.  Between  the  summer  and  winter  monsoons 
are  periods  when  the  winds  are  shifty  and  uncertain. 

Importance  to  India.  — So  important  to  India  is  the  rainfall  of 
the  summer  monsoon  that  its  failure  brings  almost  complete  ruin 
to  crops,  and  at  various  times  millions  of  the  people  of  the  afflicted 
regions  have  starved  to  death.  Sometimes  the  famines  are  so  wide- 
spread and  severe  that  famine  relief  has  to  be  given  to  millions 
of  the  population  for  periods  varying  from  one  to  four  years.  For 
example,  the  famine  of  1896—97  in  India  affected  an  area  of  about 
225,000  square  miles,  with  a population  of  62,000,000  people,  and 
the  government  had  to  expend  millions  of  dollars  in  the  direct- 
relief  of  distress.  An  idea  of  the  frequency  of  these  famines  may 
be  formed  from  the  fact  that  during  the  last  three  decades  of  the 
nineteenth  century,  no  less  than  four  severe  famines  devastated 
the  country. 

The  Wind  Belts  of  the  Earth  1 

The  Heat  Equator  and  Its  Seasonal  Movement.  — Some  part  of 
the  torrid  zone  is  always  receiving  the  sun’s  vertical  rays.  Owing 
to  the  inclination  of  the  earth’s  axis  and  to  the  annual  revolution  of 
the  earth,  the  sun’s  apparent  path  seems  to  shift  its  position  grad- 
ually from  north  of  the  equator  to  south  of  it  and  back  again.  In 
our  summer  the  sun’s  vertical  rays  fall  upon  the  northern  half  of 

1 If  the  surface  of  the  earth  were  perfectly  smooth,  and  were  either  all  land  or 
all  ocean,  the  wind  system  of  the  earth  would  be  relatively  simple.  But  it  is  not 
smooth  and  furthermore  it  is  part  land  and  part  water.  Since  the  land  heats 
and  cools  much  more  readily  than  the  sea,  and  since  the  continents  are  of  various 
shapes  with  mountain  ranges  extending  in  many  directions,  it  follows  that  the 
actual  wind  system  is  not  simple.  It  is  convenient  to  speak  of  “wind  belts,” 
but  it  is  not  to  be  understood  that  these  extend  continuously  around  the  earth  like 
zones.  Most  of  the  “belts”  are  fairly  definite  over  the  ocean,  but  quite  indefinite 
and  sometimes  non-existent  over  the  land.  The  account  of  the  wind  system  as 
here  given  is  to  be  thought  of  as  a generalized  explanation,  true  in  theory,  but  in 
reality  much  modified  by  the  distribution  of  the  land  masses  and  the  oceans. 


WINDS  AND  STORMS 


273 


the  torrid  zone,  and  in  our  winter  they  fall  upon  the  southern  half. 
The  heat  equator,  or  line  of  greatest  heat,  is  therefore  nearly  al- 
ways entirely  within  the  torrid  zone. 

Since  the  great  land  masses  (continents)  are  mainly  in  the  north- 
ern hemisphere,  this  hemisphere  becomes  somewhat  hotter  in  the 
northern  summer  than  does  the  southern  hemisphere  during  its 
summer.  This  causes  the  heat  equator,  which  shifts  north  and 
south  with  the  sun,  to  be  more  largely  in  the  northern  hemisphere 
than  in  the  southern  (Figs.  194  and  195).  In  summer  the  land 
becomes  hotter  than  the  ocean  and  the  heat  equator  bends  farther 


Fig.  194.  — Map  showing  the  position  of  the  heat  equator,  direction  of  the  winds, 
and  the  rainfall  of  part  of  the  earth  in  our  winter — December  to  February. 
Compare  with  Fig.  195.  ( After  Tarr  and  McMurry.) 

north  over  the  continents  than  over  the  oceans  in  the  northern 
hemisphere,  and  farther  south  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 

The  Doldrums  or  Region  of  Equatorial  Calms.  — Since  the 
heat  equator  is  in  the  middle  of  a belt  of  high  temperature  and  low 
pressure,  the  air  is  constantly  rising.  This  belt  of  rising  air,  known 
as  the  doldrums  or  equatorial  calms,  is  a few  degrees  in  width  and  is 
practically  always  north  of  the  equator ; it  is  well  defined  only  over 
the  sea.  In  it  sailing  ships  have  sometimes  been  becalmed  for 
days  or  even  weeks.  The  constantly  rising  and  cooling  air  gives  a 
heavy  rainfall,  and  a sultry,  unhealthy  climate. 

The  Trade  Winds.  — These  are  winds  which,  on  the  sea,  blow 
rather  steadily  toward  the  heat  equator  from  both  sides,  supplying 


274 


HIGH  SCHOOL  OROGRAPHY 


the  air  that  is  constantly  rising  in  the  doldrums.  If  the  earth  did 
not  rotate  on  its  axis,  these  winds  would  blow  from  the  north  and 
south,  but  the  rotation  causes  the  trade  winds  to  blow  from  the 
northeast  and  the  southeast,  hence  they  are  called  the  northeast 
trades  and  the  southeast  trades.  Their  steadiness  led  sailing  vessels 
to  make  use  of  them,  and  this  may  have  given  rise  to  their  name. 
The  trade  winds,  of  course,  migrate  alternately  north  and  south 
with  the  change  of  seasons.  They  bring  rainfall  when  they  blow 
from  sea  to  highlands,  as  they  do  in  northern  South  America 
and  Central  America ; they  are  drying  winds  causing  deserts  when 
they  blow  over  the  land  as  they  do  in  Arabia  and  the  Sahara. 


Fig.  195.  — Map  showing  the  position  of  th%  heat  equator,  the  direction  of  the 
winds,  and  the  rainfall  of  a part  of  the  earth  in  our  summer  — June  to  August. 
Compare  with  Fig.  194.  (After  Tarr  and  McMurry.) 

The  Horse  Latitudes.  — The  air  which  rises  in  the  doldrums 
precipitates  most  of  its  moisture  in  rising ; at  a considerable  height 
the  air  spreads  out  and  flows  both  northward  and  southward  as 
upper  currents,  called  the  anti-trade  winds,  because  they  blow  in  a 
direction  opposite  to  the  trades.  This  air  which  has  become 
cooled  and  hence  heavier,  begins  to  sink  toward  the  earth  when  it 
reaches  latitudes  of  30°  to  35°  each  side  of  the  equator.  Since  it 
is  sinking  and  hence  coming  under  greater  pressure,  it  becomes 
warmer,  and  having  previously  lost  most  of  its  moisture,  the  air  is 
in  condition  to  absorb  moisture,  not  to  precipitate  it.  These  re- 
gions of  settling  air  near  the  tropics  of  Cancer  and  Capricorn  are 


WINDS  AND  STORMS 


275 


called  the  horse  latitudes.  They  migrate  north  and  south  with  the 
seasons,  as  do  the  trades  and  doldrums,  and  are  always  dry  or 
nearly  so.  They  therefore  bring  the  “dry  season”  to  lands  which 
they  visit  in  their  seasonal  movements  northward  and  southward. 

The  Prevailing  Westerlies.  — Not  all  of  the  air  of  the  anti- 
trades settles  to  the  earth  in  the  horse  latitude  belt ; much  continues 
to  move  farther  toward  the  poles,  settling  as  it  progresses.  The 
earth’s  rotation  causes  this  air  to  swerve  toward  the  right  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  and  toward  the  left  in  the  southern,  giving 
rise  to  the  wide  belt  of  east-moving  wind  known  in  both  hemi- 
spheres as  the  belt  of  ■prevailing  westerlies.  This  belt  covers  most 
of  the  two  temperate  zones  and  the  frigid  zones,  and  includes  all 
of  the  great  nations  of  the  earth.  While  the  prevailing  winds  of 
this  belt  are  from  the  westerly  quarter,  yet,  as  we  know  by  expe- 
rience, they  are  very  changeable.  The  cause  of  this  changeable- 
ness is  discussed  later  (pages  276— 280). 

The  Wind  Belts  Summarized 

The  heat  equator  is  a line  or  narrow  belt  connecting  places  of 
highest  heat.  The  doldrums  are  a region  of  calms  and  high  tem- 
perature covering  an  irregular  area  a few  degrees  on  each  side  of 
the  heat  equator  where  the  air  rises  and  precipitates  its  moisture 
in  heavy  rains.  The  air  which  constantly  flows  in  from  the  north- 
east and  the  southeast  to  displace  the  lighter  air  of  the  doldrums 
forms  the  trade  winds.  These  may  bring  rainfall  when  they  blow 
from  the  ocean  to  the  land,  but  otherwise  they  are  drying  winds 
and  are  an  important  cause  of  the  great  deserts,  as  the  Sahara, 
for  example.  Their  steadiness  on  the  sea  favored  sailing  vessels 
and  possibly  led  to  the  name,  trade  winds.  The  doldrums  and  the 
trades  prevail  in  the  torrid  zone.  The  anti-trades  are  the  upper 
return  currents  of  air  flowing  poleward  from  the  doldrums  and, 
in  part,  settling  near  the  tropics  of  Cancer  and  Capricorn.  These 
belts  of  sinking  air  are  regions  of  relative  calm  and  dryness  and 
are  known  as  the  horse  latitudes.  The  heat  equator,  the  doldrums 
and  trades,  and  the  horse  latitudes  all  migrate  a little  northward 


276 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


in  our  summer  and  southward  in  our  winter,  due  to  the  same  causes 
that  produce  the  change  of  seasons,  namely,  the  revolution  of 
the  earth  around  the  sun  and  the  fixed  inclination  of  its  axis.  The 
winds  of  the  temperate  and  frigid  zones  form  two  great  circum- 
polar whirls,  moving  in  an  easterly  direction  in  both  the  northern 
and  the  southern  hemispheres.  The  'prevailing  westerlies  give 
the  kind  of  climate  which  is  most  favorable  to  mental  and  bodily 
vigor ; therefore,  regions  with  this  climate  have  the  highest  civili- 
zation. 


Storms  and  Weather  Changes 

Frequent  Changes  of  Weather.  — Most  of  the  people  living  in 
the  I nited  States  are  accustomed  to  frequent  changes  of  weather. 


1 ig.  196.  — Weather  map  showing  the  isobars  around  two  areas  of  low  pressure, 
and  a less  important  area  of  high  pressure.  Note  that  the  arrows  indicate 
winds  blowing  toward  the  “low”  and  away  from  the  “high.” 


The  wind  sometimes  changes  its  direction  several  times  during  a 
day,  and  the  thermometer  rises  or  falls  many  degrees  during  the 
same  period.  A day  may  begin  with  clear  skies  and  bright  sun- 
shine, and  in  the  course  of  a few  hours  clouds  may  gather,  rain  pour 
down  in  torrents,  and  the  sky  again  be  clear  before  evening.  The 


WINDS  AND  STORMS 


277 


causes  of  these  changes  will  be  discussed  in  the  following  para- 
graphs. 

Regions  of  High  and  Low  Pressure.  — People  sometimes  say 
“as  fickle  as  the  weather,”  implying  that  the  weather  changes  its 
mood  rapidly  and  with  little  cause.  Of  course  every  such  change 
has  a cause.  Practically  all  these  rapid  changes  are  connected 
with  changes  of  atmospheric  pressure.  If  at  this  moment  you 
were  to  receive  telegraphic  messages  from  places  widely  scattered 
over  the  United  States,  and  these  messages  told  the  height  of  the 
mercury  in  the  barometer,  you  would  find  that  the  atmospheric 
pressure  differs  at  different  places  quite  irrespective  of  altitude. 

In  regions  of  low  pressure  the  air  is  rising,  and  in  regions  of  high 
pressure  it  is  sinking.  Wherever  the  air  is  warmer  and  lighter 


Fig.  197.  — Weather  map  for  the  day  following  that  shown  in  Fig.  196.  The 
“low”  has  moved  eastward  several  hundred  miles. 


than  that  around  it,  it  rises  or  is  forced  upward  by  the  inflow  of 
heavier  air. 

The  ascending  air  expands  and  cools  and  may  give  rain  or  snow. 
Descending  air  is  likely  to  be  cool  and  relatively  dry.  A large 
region  of  ascending  air  (low  pressure)  is  called  a low,  and  a 


278 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


large  region  of  descending  air  (high  pressure)  is  a high.  Such 
regions  of  high  or  low  pressure  are  of  very  large  extent,  covering 
thousands  of  square  miles. 

Movements  of  the  Air  in  a Cyclone.  — A low  is  spoken  of  as 
a storm.  The  air  which  flows  toward  such  a center  does  not  move 
straight  in,  but,  like  other  winds  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  it  is 
deflected  toward  the  right  by  the  earth’s  rotation.  This  causes  the 
inflowing  and  ascending  air  to  have  a circular  or  spiral  movement, 
as  shown  in  Figs.  196  and  197.  Such  areas  of  inflowing  and  ris- 
ing air  are  called  cyclones  or  cyclonic  storms.  They  occur  in  the 
belt  of  prevailing  westerly  winds  and  so  are  carried  along  with  the 
prevailing  wind  toward  the  east  or  northeast. 

Anti-Cyclones  or  Highs.  — If  air  rises  in  certain  regions,  other 
air  must  somewhere  descend  to  replace  it.  Areas  of  descending  air 
are  indicated  by  a high  barometer,  signifying  high  atmospheric 
pressure.  Such  regions  are  called  anti-cyclones.  Like  the  cy- 
clones, they  travel  from  west  to  east  with  the  prevailing  westerlies. 
They  usually  bring  clear  and  cooler  weather. 

The  rate  of  movement  of  highs  and  lows  is  exceedingly  vari- 
able. Sometimes  they  move  a third  of  the  way  across  the  United 
States  in  24  hours,  and  again  a high  or  a low  may  be  nearly  station- 
ary for  some  time  (Fig.  198). 

Storm  Tracks  across  the  United  States.  — Most  of  the  cyclonic 
storms  come  from  the  northwest  or  southwest,  cross  the  United 
States,  and  pass  out  over  the  Atlantic  near  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence. 
So  many  of  these  storms  follow  certain  quite  definite  paths  that 
maps  showing  storm  tracks  may  be  made.  In  Fig.  199  the 
width  of  any  black  line  is  in  proportion  to  the  frequency  of  storm 
movements  along  that  path. 

Influence  of  the  Passing  of  Highs  and  Lows  upon  the  Weather. 

— Most  of  the  rapid  changes  of  weather  are  caused  by  the  pass- 
ing of  highs  and  lows.  Since  the  wind  blows  in  toward  low-pres- 
sure centers,  and  out  from  high-pressure  centers,  and  since  both 
of  these  are  carried  across  the  country  in  the  westerlies,  it  is  clear 
that  much  changing  of  wind  direction  must  be  caused.  If  a low 
is  passing  north  of  a place,  say  Chicago,  the  wind  in  the  region  of 


WINDS  AND  STORMS 


279 


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280 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  199.  ■ — Principal  paths  followed  by  cyclonic  storms  across  the  United  States. 
The  width  of  the  line  is  proportional  to  the  frequency  of  storms  moving  along 
the  path.  ( After  Van  Cleef.) 


Chicago  moves  toward  the  low,  that  is,  moves  from  the  south 
toward  the  north  ; this  gives  Chicago  a warm  wind  from  the  south- 
east, south,  or  southwest.  If  the  low  passes  south  of  the  city,  the 
wind  will  be  from  a northerly  quarter  and  will  be  cool  or  cold. 
As  a low  approaches  a place  from  the  west,  the  wind,  blowing  to- 
ward it,  comes  from  the  easterly  quarter.  When  the  storm  center 
has  passed,  the  wind,  blowing  toward  it,  comes  from  the  westerly 
quarter. 

The  low-pressure  area  (rising  air)  is  usually  accompanied  by 
rain  (or  snow),  while  the  high-pressure  area  of  descending  air  is 
usually  clear  and  cool,  or  in  winter  it  may  be  bitterly  cold.  The 
area  directly  influenced  by  one  of  these  highs  or  lows  may  be  a 
thousand  miles  across,  covering  a third  of  the  United  States.  A 
large  part  of  the  rainfall  of  the  Mississippi  basin  is  brought  from 


WINDS  AND  STORMS 


281 


the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by  winds  moving  toward  low-pressure  areas  in 
the  northern  states. 

Thunder  Storms.  — These  are  most  common  when  the  weather 
is  hot.  In  our  latitude  they  occur  most  frequently  on  hot  summer 
afternoons.  During  the  day  the  ground  and  air  above  it  become 
very  warm ; the  air  rises  rapidly,  expands,  cools,  and  its  moisture 
condenses ; great  heaps  of  cumulo-nimbus  clouds  quickly  gather 
and  rain  falls,  usually  in  a vigorous  shower. 

Lightning  is  an  electric  charge  leaping  from  one  cloud  to  another 
or  from  a cloud  to  the  earth  (Fig.  201).  Each  tiny  drop  of  water 
in  the  air  carries  a little  charge  of  electricity.  When  clouds  gather 
very  rapidly,  as  they  do  before  the  breaking  of  a thunder  storm, 
many  of  these  tiny  drops  unite  into  larger  ones ; their  little  charges 
of  electricity  combine,  causing  every  droplet  in  the  cloud  to  be 
highly  charged  ; hence  the  cloud  itself  becomes  highly  charged  with 
electricity.  It  discharges  violently  by  the  lightning,  and  quietly 
by  the  fall  of  the  raindrops.  So-called  heat  lightning  does  not 
differ  from  other  lightning.  It  simply  is  occurring  so  far  away  that 
we  see  its  reflection  in  the  clouds,  but  do  not  hear  the  thunder. 

Thunder  is  due  to  intense  vibrations  in  the  air  set  up  by  the  light- 
ning. The  passing  of  the  electric  charge  which  we  call  lightning 
disturbs  the  air,  sets  it  in  vibration,  and  sound  is  produced.  If 
the  discharge  of  electricity  is  very  near  the  observer,  the  crash  of 
thunder  instantly  follows  the  lightning  flash.  Such  discharges 
are  to  be  feared.  If  the  discharge  is  a few  miles  from  the  observer, 
the  thunder  is  not  heard  for  some  seconds  and  then  comes  with 
a rolling  sound,  echoing  from  cloud  to  cloud. 

Tornadoes,  though  frequently  miscalled  cyclones,  are  quite  dif- 
ferent. Cyclones  cover  a great  area,  are  not  necessarily  violent, 
and  seldom  do  any  direct  damage  ; they  are  constantly  passing  over 
the  United  States.  Tornadoes  are  small  areas  of  exceptionally  low 
pressure  accompanied  by  rapidly  rising  and  violently  whirling  air. 
They  are  often  only  a few  rods  broad  ; at  the  center  there  is  usually 
a funnel-shaped,  whirling,  black  cloud,  within  which  the  pressure 
is  very  low  indeed.  So  violent  is  the  wind  and  so  low  the  pressure 
in  this  cloud  that  trees  are  uprooted,  buildings  are  torn  to  pieces, 


282 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  200.  — Prevailing  direction  of  the  surface  winds  in  July.  Note  that  in  the  eastern  half  of  the  United 
States  the  winds  are  mainly  from  the  south  and  southwest,  bringing  moisture  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
( After  Day.) 


WINDS  AND  STORMS 


283 


Fig.  201.  — Remarkable  electric  display  at  Spokane,  Wash.,  about  2:30  a.m., 
July  13,  1914.  (©  C.  R.  Lewis.) 


and  people  killed.  Usually  tornadoes  are  attended  by  lightning, 
by  a most  violent  downpour  of  rain,  and  often  by  hail. 

Summary  of  Storms  and  Weather 

The  rapid  and  frequent  changes  of  weather  in  most  parts  of 
the  United  States  are  mainly  due  to  the  passing  of  low-pressure 
areas,  called  cyclones.  These  lows  are  near  the  center  of  slowly 
rising  and  rotating  bodies  of  air  of  wide  extent ; they  move  in  a 
general  west-to-east  direction,  like  great  eddies  in  the  prevailing 
westerly  winds.  Most  of  them  enter  North  America  from  the 
Pacific  and  the  larger  number  of  them  follow  tracks  which  pass 
near  the  Great  Lakes  and  out  through  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley. 
The  same  storms,  or  similar  ones,  traverse  the  Atlantic  and  move 
on  across  Europe. 


284 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Areas  of  high  pressure,  or  highs,  usually  follow  the  lows,  each, 
as  a rule,  moving  across  the  United  States  in  three  or  four  days. 
The  cyclones,  or  lows,  being  areas  of  rising  and  cooling  air,  usually 
bring  rain  or  snow.  The  anti-cyclones,  or  highs,  being  areas  of 
descending  air,  are  usually  dry  and  cool  in  summer  and  cold  in 
winter.  The  frequent  passing  of  cyclonic  storms  across  the 
United  States  causes  in-drafts  of  moist  air  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  these  furnish  most  of  the  rainfall  for  the  Mississippi 
Valley.  Our  Atlantic  coast  region  receives  rain  from  the  Atlantic 
in  a similar  manner. 

The  passing  of  successive  highs  and  lows  causes  rapid  changes 
of  the  wind,  cold  and  warm  waves,  wet  and  dry  spells,  and  a general 
uncertainty  of  weather.  Tornadoes  are  much  smaller  than  cy- 
clones, much  less  frequent  and,  unlike  cyclones,  are  usually  violent 
and  destructive. 


EXERCISE  XIX 
Test  Questions  on  Winds  and  Storms 

1.  How  can  it  be  proved  that  air  has  weight? 

2.  What  is  meant  by  pressure  of  the  air? 

3.  Why  is  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  greater  at  sea  level  than  on  a 
mountain  top? 

4.  What  instrument  is  used  for  measuring  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere? 

5.  How  does  heating  the  atmosphere  affect  its  weight  or  pressure  ? 

6.  When  an  outside  door  is  opened  in  cold  weather,  why  does  air  flow 
out  at  the  top  and  in  at  the  bottom? 

7.  Why  does  cool  air,  on  a summer  evening,  flow  down  the  hill  slopes 
into  the  valleys? 

8.  What  becomes  of  the  warm  air  thus  displaced  from  the  valley  bottoms? 

9.  Why,  in  winter,  is  a current  of  cool  air  often  found  flowing  down  the 
stairways  of  our  houses? 

10.  Why  is  the  air  near  the  ceiling  of  a room  warmer  than  that  near  the 
floor? 

11.  Why  do  hot  air  and  smoke  rise  in  chimneys? 

12.  Why  does  water  flow  down  a slope?  Why  does  air  flow  from  a place 
of  higher  to  one  of  lower  pressure? 

13.  Why  do  land  and  sea  breezes  alternate  on  coasts  ? 

14.  Explain  the  cause  and  importance  of  the  monsoons. 

15.  What  is  meant  by  a north  wind,  or  a south  wind?  What  rule  is  fol- 
lowed in  naming  the  winds? 


WINDS  AND  STORMS 


285 


16.  What  is  the  heat  equator?  Why  is  it  not  parallel  to  the  earth’s  equa- 
tor? 

17.  Where  do  the  sun’s  rays  fall  vertically  about  March  21?  Septem- 
ber 21?  June  21?  December  21?  Why  this  change? 

18.  Why  does  the  heat  equator  change  its  position  from  month  to  month? 

19.  What  and  where  are  the  doldrums  ? 

20.  Why  are  the  doldrums  called  a “belt  of  calms”?  In  what  direction 
is  the  air  moving  in  this  belt  ? Why  ? 

21.  Why  is  the  belt  of  calms  rainy?  What  continents  are  crossed  by  it? 

22.  What  are  the  trade  winds?  Why  so  called? 

23.  What  are  the  anti-trades?  Why  so  called? 

24.  From  what  directions  do  they  blow?  Why? 

25.  Under  what  conditions  do  they  bring  rain? 

26.  What  are  the  horse  latitudes?  In  about  what  latitude  are  they  found? 

27.  What  is  the  direction  of  air  movement  in  the  horse  latitudes?  Why 
are  they  dry? 

28.  Why  do  all  of  these  belts  move  alternately  north  and  south  ? 

29.  What  and  where  are  the  prevailing  westerlies?  Why  so  called? 

30.  WThy  is  this  belt  in  the  northern  hemisphere  of  more  than  ordinary 
importance?  Why  less  important  in  the  southern  hemisphere? 

31.  What  is  a low-pressure  area,  or  a low? 

32.  Describe  the  movements  of  the  air  at  and  near  a low. 

33.  What  is  a cyclone?  Why  does  the  air  of  a cyclone  have  a spiral  mo- 
tion? 

34.  What  causes  air  currents  to  be  deflected  toward  the  right  in  the 
northern  hemisphere  and  toward  the  left  in  the  southern? 

35.  What  are  anti-cyclones,  or  highs? 

36.  Why  do  cyclones  usually  bring  rain  and  anti-cyclones  clear  weather? 

37.  From  what  directions  do  the  cyclones  of  the  United  States  most  com- 
monly move?  Do  they  usually  originate  in  the  United  States?  What  path 
do  they  commonly  follow  in  leaving  North  America? 

38.  How  does  the  frequent  passing  of  highs  and  lows  across  the  United 
States  affect  our  weather?  Why? 

39.  Why  are  the  cyclonic  storms  of  especial  importance  to  the  Missis- 
sippi basin  ? 

40.  Explain  the  cause  of  thunder  and  of  lightning.  What  is  “heat  light- 
ning” ? 

41.  What  is  a tornado ? How  does  it  differ  from  a cyclone? 


CHAPTER  XV 


CLIMATE  AND  ITS  INFLUENCE 

Climate  and  Weather.  — The  weather  of  a place  may  change 
several  times  in  a day ; the  climate,  however,  is  the  average  of 
weather  conditions  over  a long  period.  A dry  climate  need  not  be 
free  from  times  of  wet  weather,  and  a climate  classed  as  cool  may 
have  periods  of  very  hot  weather.  Climate  is  the  average  of  weather. 
Within  the  tropics  only  are  weather  and  climate  the  same,  or  nearly 
the  same. 

Changes  of  climate  take  place,  but  such  changes  are  too  gradual 
to  be  detected  except  over  very  long  periods.  For  example,  the 
climate  of  North  America  was  colder  in  the  Ice  Age  than  it  is  now, 
and  it  was  warmer  in  the  coal-forming  periods ; fossils  of  tropical 
palms  are  found  in  icy  Greenland,  and  glacial  deposits  in  tropical 
Africa.  An  essential  quality  of  climate,  however,  is  its  permanence 
or  unchangeableness  through  long  periods  of  time. 

Elements  Which  Make  Up  the  Climate  of  a Place.  — The  most 
important  of  these  are  (a)  temperature,  (b)  moisture,  and  (c)  winds. 
The  average  temperature  of  a place  depends  mainly  upon  (1)  its 
latitude,  (2)  its  altitude,  (3)  its  nearness  to  the  sea,  and  (4)  the 
direction  of  the  prevailing  winds.  The  moisture  of  the  air  supplies 
rainfall,  a fundamental  requirement  for  all  life.  The  winds  are 
the  great  carriers  of  heat  and  moisture  and  so  they  directly  affect 
the  temperature  and  rainfall. 

How  the  Earth  Is  Warmed.  — Practically  all  of  the  heat  which 
warms  the  earth  comes  from  the  sun.  The  waves  of  energy  sent 
out  by  the  sun  traverse  space  without  either  warming  or  lighting 
it.  Though  the  space  between  the  earth  and  sun  is  always  filled 
with  waves  which  carry  both  heat  and  light,  yet  this  space  is  as 
dark  as  night  and  intensely  cold.  When,  however,  any  of  these 

286 


CLIMATE  AND  ITS  INFLUENCE 


287 


waves  that  are  radiated  from  the  sun  strike  an  object,  say  the  earth 
or  even  grains  of  dust  or  droplets  of  water  in  the  air,  these  objects 
are  warmed  and  illumined. 

Go  out  on  a clear  night  before  the  moon  has  risen,  and  look  out  into  space  ; 
it  is  all  dark  excepting  where  the  stars  appear  as  points  of  light.  It  is  hard 
to  believe  that  this  dark  space  is  completely  filled  with  waves  from  the  sun, 
capable  of  producing  light,  yet  such  is  the  case.  Later,  the  moon  rises  into 
the  space  which  seemed  so  dark,  and  behold  the  face  of  the  moon  shines  bril- 
liantly. But  what  causes  it  to  shine?  It  shines  by  reflecting  light  received 
from  the  sun.  If  there  were  hundreds  of  moons  scattered  through  this  dark 
sky,  they  would  all  be  shining  by  reflecting  the  sun’s  light.  Clearly,  then, 
this  space  which  appears  dark  to  us  is  filled  with  waves  that  produce  light. 
Although  the  moon  changes  in  position  every  hour  of  the  night  and  every 
night  of  the  year,  it  never  (except  when  the  earth  comes  between  it  and  the 
sun  causing  an  eclipse  of  the  moon)  gets  out  of  reach  of  the  sun’s  rays,  Simply 
because  all  space  surrounding  the  sun  is  filled  with  the  waves  or  rays  radiated 
from  it.  When  these  waves  are  traveling  through  space  they  manifest  neither 
heat  nor  light , but  the  instant  they  strike  any  object,  the  object  is  illumined 
and  itself  sends  out  waves  of  actual  light  by  reflection.  It  light  enters  a 
darkened  room  through  a small  hole  or  crack,  the  dust  particles  in  the  air 
show  exactly  the  path  of  the  rays  of  light.  If  there  were  no  dust  in  the  room, 
the  pencil  of  light  would  not  be  noted. 


Effect  of  Oblique  and  of  Vertical  Rays.  Latitude  and  Tempera- 
ture. — The  reason  that  the  poles  are  colder  than  the  equatorial 
regions  is  not  that  they  are  farther  from  the  sun,  for  this  small  dif- 
ference in  distance  is  of  little  account.  The  temperatures  in  the 
polar  regions  are  lower  because  of  the  earth’s  spherical  shape.  So 
far  away  is  the  sun  that  those  of  its  rays  which  strike  the  earth 
act  substantially  as  they  would  if  they  were  moving  in  parallel 
lines.  If  other  conditions  are  the  same,  the  amount  of  heat  re- 
ceived by  a square  mile  of  the  earth’s  surface  depends  upon  the 
number  of  sun’s  rays  (or  waves)  which  strike  it.  If  one  square 
mile  receives  the  sun’s  rays  perpendicularly,  and  another  square 
mile  receives  them  obliquely,  the  former  receives  more  rays  than 
the  latter.  A point  on  the  equator  receives  on  an  average  dur- 
ing a year  nearly  three  times  as  much  heat  as  the  pole  receives. 

In  Fig.  202,  the  lines  AB,  AC,  and  BC  are  all  of  equal  length ; 
BC,  upon  wdiieh  the  rays  fall  at  right  angles,  receives  the  heat 
of  12  rays;  but  AB,  of  the  same  length  as  BC,  but  on  which  the 


288 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


;SUN'S  RAYS 


/ 


A 


\ 


B 

Fig.  202.  — Diagram  to 
show  why  a region  that 
receives  the  sun’s  rays 
perpendicularly  is 
warmer  than  one  that 
receives  them  obliquely. 
AB,  AC,  and  BC  are 
the  same  length,  - but 
BC  receives  the  heat  of 
twice  as  many  rays  as 
AB  or  AC. 


rays  fall  obliquely,  receives  only  6 rays, 
and  hence  only  half  as  much  heat.  This 
explains  one  reason  why  the  frigid  zones  are 
cold. 

The  second  reason  arises  from  the  fact 
that  rays  which  fall  upon  the  equatorial 
region  pass  through  less  atmosphere  ( DK 
in  Fig.  203)  than  do  the  rays  that  fall  up- 
on the  polar  regions  (AM  in  Fig.  203). 
The  more  atmosphere  the  sun’s  rays  pass 
through,  the  more  heat  is  absorbed  from 
them  before  reaching  the  surface  of  the  land 
or  sea.  These  two  causes  make  the  frigid 
zones  cold,  and  a great  amount  of  snow 
and  ice  has  accumulated  there.  When  the 
sun  does  shine  upon  the  frigid  zones,  its 
heat  is  used  up  merely  in  melting  some  of  the 
snow  and  ice.  The  torrid  zone  is  warmest 
because  there  the  sun’s  rays  pass  through 
the  atmosphere  by  the  shortest  path,  and 
because  more  rays  strike  each  square  mile 
of  surface  than  in  any  other  zone. 

Why  W e Have  Winter  When  the  Earth  Is 
Nearest  the  Sun.  — It  will  be  recalled  that 
the  earth’s  orbit  is  a slightly  flattened  circle, 
or  an  ellipse,  and  that  the  sun  is  not  at  the 


center  but  at  one  of  the  foci  (F  and  F'  in 
Fig.  204),  a little  on  one  side  of  the  center.  Recall  that,  as  the 
earth  journeys  around  the  sun,  its  axis  constantly  remains  tilted 
at  the  same  angle  (23|°),  and  in  the  same  direction  (toward  the 
pole  star). 

As  shown  in  Fig.  6,  page  12,  the  northern  hemisphere  is  tipped 
toward  the  sun  in  our  summer,  but  away  from  the  sun  in  our  winter, 
causing  this  hemisphere  to  receive  much  more  heat  in  summer  than 
in  winter  even  though  the  earth  is  actually  2|  million  miles  nearer 
the  sun  in  winter.  The  people  of  the  southern  hemisphere  have 


CLIMATE  AND  ITS  INFLUENCE 


289 


their  summer  when 
the  earth  is  nearest 
the  sun,  and  there- 
fore would  be  ex- 
pected to  have 
warmer  summers 
than  we  have.  How- 
ever, the  great 
amount  of  ocean  in 
the  southern  hemi- 
sphere so  tempers 
the  summer  climate 
there  that  it  is  no 
warmer  than  ours. 

Effect  of  Altitude 
upon  Climate.  — As 


Fig.  203.  — Diagram  to  illustrate  why  the  sun's  heat 
is  more  effective  in  the  torrid  zone  than  in  the  tem- 
perate or  frigid  zones.  Note  (1)  that  the  same 
number  of  rays  fall  upon  the  small  area  CD  as 
upon  the  large  area  AB ; and  (2)  that  a polar  ray 
passes  through  the  atmosphere  by  the  long  path 
M A,  while  a tropical  ray  passes  through  the  atmos- 
phere by  the  shorter  path  DK.  Both  of  these 
conditions  contribute  to  the  higher  average  tem- 
perature of  the  tropics- 


above  ellipse  is  flattened  very  much  more  than  is  the  elliptical  orbit  followed 
by  the  earth  in  its  yearly  revolution  around  the  sun. 


290 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


previously  explained,  temperature  decreases  one  degree  Fahrenheit 
on  an  average  for  each  330  feet  of  ascent,  hence  highlands  are  cooler 
than  lowlands  would  be  in  the  same  location.  Mountain  ranges 
usually  receive  heavy  rainfall  on  their  windward  slopes,  but  large 
plateaus  are  often  dry  because  the  winds  lose  their  moisture 
in  rising  to  the  level  of  the  plateau,  or  in  passing  over  the  bor- 
dering mountains. 

Effect  of  Large  Bodies  of  Water  upon  Climate.  — Even  though 
the  sun’s  rays  fall  equally  upon  the  land  and  water,  the  land  be- 
comes much  warmer,  for  it  requires  about  four  times  as  much  heat 
to  raise  the  temperature  of  water  one  degree  as  it  does  to  raise 
the  temperature  of  the  same  amount  of  land  one  degree.  Thus,  the 
continents  and  the  air  above  them  become  much  Warmer  in  summer 
than  do  the  oceans  and  the  air  over  them.  Water  also  gives  up  its 
heat  more  slowly  than  land.  Therefore,  the  effect  of  large  bodies 
of  water  is  to  produce  a steadiness  or  equability  of  temperature 
between  day  and  night  and  between  summer  and  winter. 

Examples  of  Lake  Influence.  — This  influence  of  water  bodies 
upon  climate  is  well  shown  in  the  effect  of  the  Great  Lakes  upon 
fruit  growing.  The  prevailing  westerly  winds  cause  the  lake  in- 
fluence to  be  mainly  felt  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Lakes.  Wiscon- 
sin, lying  on  the  west  side  of  Lake  Michigan,  raises  very  few  grapes 
or  peaches,  but  Michigan  produces  great  quantities  of  both,  es- 
pecially in  the  counties  near  the  lake  (Fig.  205).  The  Chautauqua 
grape  belt  of  New  York  is  east  of  Lake  Erie  (Fig.  205) ; the  apple 
belt  of  New  York  lies  near  the  shore  of  Lake  Ontario  (Fig.  205), 
and  the  fruit  belt  of  Ontario,  Canada,  is  in  the  peninsula  which  lies 
between  Lakes  Huron,  Erie,  and  Ontario. 

Oceanic  Climate.  — Oceanic  islands  have  a remarkably  uniform 
climate  ; for  example,  the  average  temperature  of  the  coldest  month 
in  Hawaii  is  only  2 or  3 degrees  lower  than  that  of  the  warmest 
month.  In  latitudes  between  40°  N.  and  40°  S.  the  average 
temperature  of  the  air  over  the  sea  differs  only  2 or  3 degrees  be- 
tween day  and  night.  Coast  lands  are  more  uniform  in  temper- 
ature than  interiors  of  continents.  This  is  especially  true  of 
coasts  which  receive  their  prevailing  winds  from  the  sea,  as  is 


CLIMATE  AND  ITS  INFLUENCE 


291 


Fig.  205.  ■ — The  black  areas  are  regions  of  intensive  production  of  fruits.  (U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


292 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


the  case  on  our  Pacific  coast  and  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Eu- 
rope. 

Effect  of  Winds  upon  Climate.  — Winds  are  the  great  distribu- 
ters of  heat  and  moisture.  They  absorb  heat  in  warm  regions  and 
carry  it  into  cooler  regions,  and  they  convey  cold  air  into  warm  lati- 
tudes. All  summer  long  the  oceans  of  the  temperate  zones  store 
up  heat ; in  winter,  winds  blowing  over  these  ocean  waters  gradu- 
ally absorb  the  heat  and  carry  it  over  the  continents.  Europe  re- 
ceives an  enormous  amount  of  heat  from  the  westerly  winds  which 
blow  over  the  North  Atlantic.  Southerly  lands  are  often  invaded 
by  cold  winds  from  the  north ; for  example,  the  orange  groves  of 
Florida  were  practically  destroyed  at  one  time  by  a “norther” 
which  brought  a freezing  temperature  into  that  state.  The  winds 
are  constantly  engaged  in  mixing  the  atmosphere,  and  this  tends 
toward  greater  uniformity  of  climate  over  the  earth  as  a whole  than 
would  otherwise  exist. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  follows  that  the  character  of  the  pre- 
vailing winds  exerts  a powerful  influence  upon  the  climate  of  a 
place.  If  the  prevailing  winds  are  warm  or  cold,  moist  or  dry, 
oceanic  or  continental,  steady  or  fluctuating,  — the  climate  of  the 
land  over  which  they  blow  necessarily  takes  on  a similar  character. 

Effect  of  Ocean  Currents  upon  Climate.  — Warm  ocean  cur- 
rents and  “drifts,”  such  as  the  Gulf  Stream  and  the  North  Atlantic 
Drift  (Fig.  222),  carry  a great  amount  of  heat  into  cool  latitudes; 
this  is  taken  up  by  winds  that  blow  over  them  and  the  winds  in  turn 
warm  the  lands  over  which  they  blow.  In  a similar  way,  cold 
ocean  currents  invade  warm  latitudes,  chill  the  winds,  and  cool  the 
climate  of  the  neighboring  lands.  It  should  be  noted  that,  while 
ocean  currents  carry  warm  water  or  cold  water,  they  have  very 
little  direct  effect  upon  the  temperature  of  the  lands  ; their  warming 
or  cooling  influence  is  exerted  through  the  winds. 

Effect  of  Mountain  Barriers  on  Climate.  — High  mountain 
walls  like  the  Alps  and  the  Himalayas  protect  the  lands  south  of 
them  from  cold  north  winds.  Italy  and  India  have  milder  climates 
in  winter  than  they  would  have  if  they  did  not  possess  such  effi- 
cient windbreaks  on  the  north.  The  cities  of  northern  India  are 


CLIMATE  AND  ITS  INFLUENCE 


293 


0 Sea  Level  25  miles 


from  10  to  15  degrees  warmer  in  winter  than  those  of  China 
in  the  same  latitude.  The  Central  Plain  of  the  United 
States  has  no  such  protection  against  north  winds,  and  in  spring 
these  sometimes  sweep 
down  from  Canada 
and  do  serious  dam- 
age to  fruit  and  sensi- 
tive crops  in  our  south- 
ern states. 

North  and  South 
Sides  of  Mountain 
Ranges.  — There  is 
usually  a marked  differ- 
ence between  climatic 
conditions  on  the  north 
side  and  on  the  south 
side  of  mountains  in 
the  temperate  zone ; 
for  example,  the  region  Fm  206  _ Diagram  showing  the  extent  t0  which 
lying  north  of  the  precipitation  is  caused  by  mountains.  Note  in 

Caucasus  Mountains  0 ^ **  l~ 

in  southern  Russia  is 

subject  to  cold,  bleak  winds  from  the  north,  and  only  hardy 
crops  are  grown.  South  of  these  mountains  is  a different 
world,  for  here  subtropical  fruits  grow  in  profusion  and  in 
perfect  safety. 

The  effect  of  mountains  on  rainfall  is  still  more  marked ; for 
example,  the  west  coast  of  Washington  receives  140  inches  of  rain- 
fall a year,  while  eastern  Washington,  on  the  lee  side  of  the  moun- 
tains, receives  from  7 to  15  inches.  Note  also  the  effect  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  as  shown  in  Fig.  206.  This  general 
topic  is  more  fully  discussed  on  page  235. 

Isotherms  are  lines  drawn  on  a map  to  connect  places  of  equal 
temperature.  For  example,  an  isothermal  map  for  July  has  a 
series  of  lines,  each  connecting  places  which  have  the  same  aver- 
age temperature  during  July  (Fig.  20S) ; a map  showing  annual 


— Relation  of  topography  to  rainfall.  Sierra  Nevada  Mountains. 


294 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  207.  — Average  annual  rainfall  of  the  United  States.  ( After  map  by  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


CLIMATE  AND  ITS  INFLUENCE 


295 


Fig.  208.  — Isotherms  for  July.  Note  that  the  highest  indicated  temperature, 
90°  F.,  is  found  in  the  interiors  of  North  America,  Africa,  and  Asia.  ( After  Tarr.) 


isotherms  has  a series  of  lines  each  of  which  connects  places 
having  the  same  average  temperature  during  the  year. 

Summary  of  the  General  Features  of  Climate 

1.  Climate  is  the  average  of  weather. 

2.  Climate  is  determined  by  conditions  that  are  more  or  less 
fixed,  and  so  the  climate  of  any  part  of  the  world  changes  very 
slowly;  but  there  is  ample  evidence  that  great  changes  have 
occurred  in  past  geological  ages. 

3.  The  three  main  elements  of  climate  are  temperature,  mois- 
ture, and  winds. 

4.  The  four  influences  which  most  affect  the  climate  of  a place 
are  latitude,  altitude,  nearness  to  the  sea,  and  the  direction  of 
the  prevailing  winds. 

5.  Over  99  per  cent  of  the  heat  which  warms  the  earth  comes 
from  the  sun. 


296 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


6.  The  polar  regions  are  cold  because  there  the  sun’s  rays  trav- 
erse very  slanting  and  hence  long  paths  through  the  atmosphere, 
and  also  because  fewer  rays  fall  upon  a given  area  than  is  the  case 
in  lower  latitudes. 

7.  The  earth  is  2\  million  miles  nearer  the  sun  in  our  winter 
than  in  our  summer,  but  in  our  winter  the  northern  hemisphere 
is  tipped  away  from  the  sun  and  so  receives  its  rays  very 
obliquely. 

8.  Temperature  decreases  with  altitude  (1°  for  each  330  feet). 
Mountain  tops  and  high  plateaus  are  cold  because  the  rare  atmos- 
phere permits  them  to  radiate  their  heat  back  into  space  rapidly. 

9.  The  ocean  is  warmed  and  cooled  much  more  slowly  than 
the  land ; oceanic  climates  are  therefore  more  equable  than  con- 
tinental climates. 

10.  Winds  are  absorbers  and  distributers  of  heat  and  moisture ; 
they  tend  to  impart  their  own  temperatures  to  lands  over  which 
they  blow,  and  thus  to  make  the  lands  warmer  or  colder,  wetter 
or  drier,  as  the  case  may  be. 

11.  Cold  or  warm  ocean  currents  affect  the  temperature  of 
the  winds  that  blow  over  them,  and  these  in  turn  affect  the  cli- 
mate of  the  land. 

Climate  and  Man 

Life  in  the  Arctic.  — It  seems  strange  that  anyone  should  care 
to  live  in  a region  of  almost  perpetual  winter ; yet  thousands  of 
Eskimos  and  a number  of  other  tribes  live  there.  On  a few  oc- 
casions Eskimos  have  been  brought  to  the  United  States,  but  they 
were  unhappy  and  unhealthy  and  longed  to  get  back  to  their 
northern  home. 

Seasons  and  “ Days  ” in  the  Far  North.  — Summer  is  the  period 
of  light,  and  winter  the  period  of  darkness.  At  the  Arctic  circle 
the  longest  period  of  continuous  sunlight  is  24  hours ; at  70°  lati- 
tude, it  is  two  months ; at  78°,  four  months  ; and  at  the  poles,  six 
months.  To  these  periods  of  actual  sunlight  should  be  added 
(1)  further  duration  resulting  from  the  fact  that  refraction  of  the 
sun’s  rays  increases  the  length  of  the  period  of  light ; (2)  periods 


CLIMATE  AND  ITS  INFLUENCE 


29? 


of  long  polar  twilight  varying  from  hours  at  the  circles  to  weeks 
at  the  poles.  In  northern  Norway,  Lapland,  and  Alaska  beyond 
the  Arctic  circle  a few  hardy  grains  are  grown.  The  reindeer  has 


Fig.  209.  — The  white  winters  of  the  Far  North. 


been  domesticated  and  is  the  main  dependence  of  the  people.  It 
is  used  as  a draft  animal ; its  milk  and  flesh  furnish  food ; and  its 
skin  is  used  for  clothing,  blankets,  and  tents. 

The  uncivilized  Eskimos  of  northern  America  represent  a people 
who  live  the  natural  life  of  the  Arctic  zone.  Their  mode  of  life  is 
in  strict  accord  with  their  climatic  environment,  and  therefore 
forms  an  interesting  study  in  the  effect  of  a cold  climate  upon  the 
life  and  customs  of  people.  The  Eskimos  are  thus  described  by  one 
who  has  visited  them  : 


“ The  uncivilized  Eskimos  are  spread  in  scattered  settlements  from  just 
west  of  Bering  Straits  to  the  eastern  coast  of  Greenland,  fringing  the  main- 
land and  also  occupying  the  coast  of  some  of  the  islands.  Formerly  through- 
out this  area,  and  at  present  in  those  places  out  of  reach  of  the  influence  of 
white  men,  the  Eskimos  have  been  engaged  in  one  of  the  most  serious  struggles 
against  adverse  geographic  conditions  of  any  people  in  the  world.  . . . 

“ They  must  look  out  to  the  sea  not  only  for  the  bulk  of  their  food,  but 
also  for  materials  for  clothing  and  shelter.  Only  by  the  hardest  struggle, 
constantly  kept  up,  and  by  the  exercise  of  intelligence,  energy,  and  ingenuity, 


298 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


is  it  possible  for  them  to  maintain  life  amid  such  surroundings.  Since  the 
food  supply  is  shifting  and  uncertain,  it  is  not  usual  for  them  to  have  fixed 
homes ; they  must  ever  be  ready  to  move  from  point  to  point  when  the  food 
supply  fails.  Consequently,  though  not  strictly  nomadic,  they  are  migra- 
tory within  a narrow  range. 

“ This  necessary  mode  of  life  of  the  Eskimo  places  a distinct  limitation 
upon  the  amount  of  property  that  can  be  accumulated,  for  anything  in  ex- 
cess of  actual  needs  must  be  left  behind  when  the  time  for  moving  comes. 
The  boat  (kayak),  which  the  men  use  in  hunting,  the  large  skin  boat  (oomiak), 
in  which  the  women  and  children  move  the  property  from  place  to  place,  a 
few  skins  for  cover  and  for  tents,  the  clothing  which  they  wear,  and  a few 
simple  implements  constitute  the  outfit  of  Eskimo  communities.  The  win- 
ter home  is  of  ice  or  snow,  suitable  not  merely  because  of  the  abundant  sup- 
ply, but  also  because  it  is  easily  worked  and  quickly  built  into  the  igloo  form, 
and  because  it  furnishes  the  best  of  shelter  against  the  Arctic  cold.  The 
summer  home  consists  of  a few  skins  thrown  over  upright  supports,  usually 
the  bones  of  large  animals,  easily  put  together,  easily  taken  down,  and  easy 
to  transport.  For  fuel  in  winter  the  blubber  of  the  seal  or  walrus  suffices, 
and  in  summer  little  or  no  fuel  is  used,  since  meat  is  relished  in  the  raw  state. 

“ The  boat  is  made  of  skin  wrapped  around  a frame  of  bone  or,  where  pos- 
sible, of  wood  that  has  drifted  ashore.  The  hunting  boat,  or  kayak,  is  long 
and  narrow  and  can  be  propelled  through  the  water  with  great  rapidity,  this 
being  necessary  in  the  seal  hunt.  . . . The  winter  sled  is  also  an  ingenious 
contrivance  made  of  bone,  or  wood  and  bone,  fastened  together  with  thongs, 
shod  with  bone  or  ivory,  and  attached  to  the  dog  team  with  sinew.  . . . 

“ Under  these  conditions  of  life  it  naturally  follows  that  there  can  be  no 
large  settlements,  for  success  depends  upon  scattering,  otherwise  the  food 
supply  in  a locality  would  soon  be  exhausted.  . . . Such  a life  necessarily 
breeds  hardiness,  courage,  cunning,  and  intelligent  ingenuity;  but  both  the 
severe  struggle  for  existence  and  the  necessary  mode  of  life  are  adverse  to 
the  internal  development  of  civilization.”1 

The  continent  of  Antarctica  is  larger  than  Australia  ; it  is  deeply 
buried  under  snow  and  ice  and  is  surrounded  by  the  great  Antarctic 
or  Southern  Ocean  ; it  is  far  removed  from  the  other  continents  and 
has  no  human  inhabitants. 

Life  in  the  Tropics 

Equatorial  Lowlands.  — Here  snow  never  falls,  frost  never  oc- 
curs; day  and  night  are  always  about  12  hours  long,  and  there 
is  little  dawn  or  twilight ; thunder  storms  occur  almost  every  after- 
noon in  the  wet  season ; a dense  jungle  usually  covers  the  land ; 

1 From  “Human  Life  in  the  Arctic,”  by  Professor  R.  S.  Tarr,  Journal  of  Geog- 
raphy, Vol.  X,  p.  145. 


CLIMATE  AND  ITS  INFLUENCE 


290 


Fig.  210.  — One  of  the  ice  palaces  erected  in  Montreal  in  years  past.  Built 
entirely  of  blocks  of  ice.  ( Physiography  Lab.  Cornell  Univ.) 

insects  are  a pest  and  a menace;  birds  have  gorgeous  plumage; 
flowers  are  brilliantly  colored ; weeds  are  unconquerable ; agricul- 
ture is  discouraging  ; malaria,  yellow  fever,  and  other  tropical  dis- 
eases are  prevalent ; the  native  peoples  are  dark  skinned,  usually 
lazy,  content  to  live  on  what  nature  provides,  and  disposed  to  pro- 
duce little  beyond  their  few  simple  needs.  There  are  so-called 
wet  and  dry  seasons,  or  even  two  of  each,  due  to  the  migration 
of  the  doldrums  with  the  sun  north  from  the  equator  a few  degrees 
and  then  south  again.  These  regions  have  never  produced  a peo- 
ple or  nation  that  contributed  anything  of  importance  to  human 
advancement.  Though  the  torrid  zone  includes  a third  of  the  land 
of  the  earth,  it  is  practically  all  ruled  by  Europeans  or  descendants 
of  Europeans.  White  men  cannot  live  long  at  a time  and  retain 
their  vigor  in  the  equatorial  lowlands. 


300 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Tropical  highlands  are  cool,  but  the  climate  is  likely  to  be 
monotonously  uniform.  Rainfall  may  be  heavy  or  light,  depend- 
ing upon  the  direction  of  the  winds.  Quito,  near  the  equator  in 
Ecuador,  is  over  9000  feet  above  the  sea ; the  mean  temperature  of 
its  coldest  month  is  only  one  degree  lower  than  that  of  its  warmest 


Fig.  211.  — In  tropical  Jamaica.  Natives  returning  from  market.  ( Physiog- 
raphy Lab.  Cornell  Univ.) 


month,  while  the  range  of  temperature  from  day  to  night  is  20 
times  as  great.  A majority  of  the  people  of  western  America  from 
Bolivia  to  Mexico  live  on  the  plateaus  at  elevations  ranging  from 
a mile  to  two  miles  above  sea  level. 

The  trade  wind  belts  differ  widely  in  different  portions.  Since 
the  trades  blow  from  cooler  to  warmer  regions,  their  tendency  is 
to  absorb  and  not  to  precipitate  moisture,  and  thus  they  are  likely 
to  produce  deserts.  Arabia  and  the  Sahara  and  the  deserts  of  Aus- 


CLIMATE  AND  ITS  INFLUENCE 


301 


Fig.  212.  — The  dense  vegetation  of  the  humid  tropics ; the  north  shore  of  the 
island  of  Jamaica.  ( Physiography  Lab.  Cornell  Univ.) 


tralia  and  of  South  Africa  are  mainly  in  regions  over  which  the 
trades  blow.  If,  however,  the  trade  winds,  blowing  from  the  sea, 
encounter  mountains,  as  they  do  in  Brazil  and  Central  America, 
they  bring  rainfall,  perhaps  in  great  abundance ; yet  deserts  are 
much  more  common  than  jungles  in  the  trade  wind  belts. 

The  Savannas  or  Grass  Lands.  — Between  the  equatorial  forests  and 
the  trade  wind  deserts  there  is  usually  an  irregular  belt  which  has  a wet 
season  followed  by  a very  dry  one.  The  Soudan,  south  of  the  Sahara  in 
Africa,  is  such  a region.  In  our  summer,  as  the  sun  moves  northward,  the 
belt  of  equatorial  rains  moves  northward  over  the  Soudan,  bringing  to  it  the 
rainy  season.  Later,  the  equatorial  rain  belt  moves  southward,  and  the 
Soudan  is  then  brought  under  the  influence  of  the  trades  and  the  dry  season 
follows.  Under  these  conditions  forests  cannot  maintain  themselves,  but 
grass  grows  abundantly.  Regions  of  this  type  are  called  savannas.  The 
llanos  of  Venezuela,  the  campos  of  southern  Brazil,  and  the  park  lands  of 
South  Africa  are  savannas.  They  are  used  for  pasturing  cattle  and  sheep, 


302 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


but  have  nowhere  as  yet  attained  importance  as  the  home  of  progressive 
peoples. 

Life  in  the  desert  is  hard  and  the  severe  conditions  strongly 
influence  the  habits  and  even  the  moral  standards  of  the  desert 


Fig.  213.  — Only  parts  of  the  desert  are  sandy.  Much  larger  areas  are  bare  rocks 
from  which  the  sand  has  been  blown. 


people.  Huntington,  who  has  seen  much  of  these  people,  has 
pointed  out  how  the  desert  affects  the  Arab’s  views  of  right  and 
wrong : 

“No  argument  is  needed  to  prove  that  the  moral  standards  of  the  desert 
are  vastly  different  from  our  own.  What  seems  absolutely  wrong  to  us  may 
seem  not  only  right  but  laudable  to  them.  To  what  shall  we  ascribe  this? 
There  is  ground  for  believing  that  many  of  the  most  prominent  Arab  traits 
have  been  caused,  or  at  least  fostered,  by  the  hard  conditions  imposed  by 
the  desert  climate. 

“ Consider  what  happens  to  an  Arab  nomad  during  the  course  of  a year. 
In  the  spring,  when  the  camels,  goats,  and  sheep  are  giving  abundance  of  milk 
he  lays  up  a store  of  sour  cheese  and  curds,  dried  as  hard  as  the  toughest 
hardtack.  Then  when  the  summer  comes  he  exchanges  his  surplus  animals, 


CLIMATE  AND  ITS  INFLUENCE 


303 


chiefly  the  young  males,  for  dates,  wheat,  and  rice  grown  in  the  oases  or  in 
the  border  lands  where  agriculture  is  possible.  A few  animals  may  be  saved 
for  future  use  as  food,  but  only  the  most  wealthy  can  afford  to  eat  meat  often. 
In  good  years  the  ordinary  Arab  can  lay  by  enough  food  to  last  himself  and 
his  family  until  the  following  spring.  Suppose,  however,  that  the  year  has 
been  dry,  and  many  of  the  young  animals  have  died  on  the  one  hand,  and 
the  price  of  dates  and  wheat  is  high  because  the  crop  is  scanty  on  the  other 
hand.  In  that  case  a large  number  of  the  nomadic  Arabs  are  unable  to  lay 
by  food  enough  to  last  them  later  than  perhaps  February,  the  time  when 
the  rains  ought  to  come  and  the  young  sheep  and  camels  to  begin  to  be  born, 
and  the  milk  to  be  abundant.  . . . Imagine  the  state  of  people  who 
eagerly  pack  their  tents  and  all  their  crude  belongings  upon  camels  and  travel 
one  or  two  hundred  miles  simply  because  they  have  heard  that  a little 
shower  has  fallen  over  an  area  no  larger  than  that  watered  by  a single  sum- 
mer thunderstorm  in  America.  Yet  this  is  a common  occurrence  in  Ara- 
bia. . . . What  is  an  Arab  to  do  when  his  camels,  his  sheep,  his  wife, 
his  children,  and  himself  are  all  suffering  the  pangs  of  hunger?  He  cannot 
go  off  to  some  other  land  and  get  work.  . . . The  only  resource  under 
such  circumstances  is  plunder.  The  man  who  is  starving  has  little  thought 
of  right  or  wrong.  To  have  such  thoughts  would  seem  to  him  fatal.  If 
considerations  of  humanity  or  any  other  moral  ideas  prevent  him  from  en- 
gaging in  raids  upon  the  tribes  around  him,  the  doom  of  his  family  is  sealed, 
or  his  children  die  of  hunger.  Thus  through  the  thousands  of  years  since 
Semitic  nomads  first  lived  in  Arabia  the  hard  conditions  of  climate  have 
steadily  weeded  out  all  who  withheld  their  hands  from  violence.”  1 


Climates  of  the  North  Temperate  Zone 

Characteristics.  — Considered  as  a whole,  the  climate  of  the 
north  temperate  zone  has  four  characteristics  : (1)  four  seasons  — 
spring,  summer,  autumn,  and  winter ; (2)  a very  wide  range  of  tem- 
perature from  the  hottest  to  the  coldest  days,  and  from  the  hottest 
to  the  coldest  places  ; (3)  winds  prevailingly  from  the  west,  yet  con- 
stantly shifting ; (4)  the  presence  of  cyclones  and  anti-cyclones 
(lows  and  highs)  moving  from  west  to  east,  and  causing  great 
uncertainty  of  weather. 

West-facing  Coasts.  — It  has  been  pointed  out  that  west- 
facing coasts  in  the  temperate  zones  have  a more  equable  tempera- 
ture than  east-facing  coasts.  The  former  have  the  oceanic  type 
of  climate  (equable)  and  the  latter  the  continental  type  (variable). 
In  latitudes  below  40°,  west-facing  coasts  have  relatively  light 

1 Ellsworth  Huntington,  in  the  Journal  of  Geography,  Vol.  X,  pp.  172,  173. 


304 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  214.  — Dense  forest  on  the  west  coast  of  Washington  where  the  rainfall  is 
heavy  and  the  winters  mild.  {U . S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


rainfall,  and  this  comes  mainly  in  winter.  In  higher  latitudes  these 
coasts  have  heavy  rainfall  also  chiefly  in  winter. 

Climate  of  our  Pacific  Coast.  — Southern  California,  from  San 
Diego  to  San  Francisco,  has  a great  deal  of  sunny  weather  — 200 
to  250  perfectly  clear  days  a year  — and  in  the  south  the  tempera- 
ture is  that  of  almost  continuous  spring.  The  westerlies  prevail 
in  this  region  and  three-fourths  of  the  small  annual  rainfall  comes 
in  December,  January,  February,  and  March.  In  summer  the 
northward  movement  of  the  sun  brings  the  horse  latitudes  to  south- 
ern California,  and  during  the  four  summer  months  little  or  no  rain 
falls.  Freezing  temperatures  are  rare ; under  irrigation,  oranges, 
lemons,  figs,  and  olives  and  all  of  the  hardier  fruits  grow,  and 
flowers  bloom  in  gorgeous  profusion. 

In  the  vicinity  of  San  Francisco  the  average  rainfall  is  23  inches  a 
year ; nearly  all  of  it  falls  during  the  six  winter  months  from  No- 


CLIMATE  AND  ITS  INFLUENCE 


305 


vember  to  April.  June,  July,  and  August  as  a rule  are  nearly  rain- 
less. The  coast  of  California  really  has  only  two  seasons,  a wet  and 
a dry.  In  summer,  dense  banks  of  fog  roll  in  from  the  sea  and  in- 
close the  city  and  bay,  but  the  neighboring  mountain  tops  rise 
above  the  billows  of  white  fog  and  are  bathed  in  brilliant  sunshine. 
Though  San  Francisco  is  in  the  latitude  of  Washington,  D.  C., 
snow  seldom  falls  and  even  a hard  freeze  is  rare.  The  summers  are 
cool  and  summer  evenings  are  often  too  chilly  for  comfort.  The 
average  temper- 
ature of  the 
warmest  month 
is  only  1 1 de- 
grees above  that 
of  the  coldest ; 
contrast  this 
with  St.  Louis  in 
the  interior  of 
the  continent, 
which  has  a 
range  of  55  de- 
grees between  its 
warmest  and  its 
coldest  month. 

The  Great  Val- 
ley of  California 
has  a light  rain- 

p ii  i i • Fig.  215.  — Heavy  rainfall  of  the  Pacific  coast  due  to  the  west- 
lail,  ana  liriga-  erlies  and  the  mountains.  {After  Tarr.) 

tion  is  exten- 
sively practiced.  Climatic  conditions  are  ideal  for  raising  grapes, 
peaches,  prunes,  pears,  apricots,  and  many  other  fruits.  Califor- 
nia produces  more  fruit  than  any  other  three  states  (Fig.  205). 

Northward  from  San  Francisco  the  yearly  rainfall  is  increasingly 
heavier ; in  western  Washington  it  reaches  140  inches,  the  highest  in 
the  Lhiited  States,  and  continues  to  be  heavy  along  the  entire  coast 
well  into  Alaska.  The  rain  is  heaviest  in  winter,  while  the  summer 
months  are  relatively  dry.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  in  win- 


306 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


ter  the  land  is  cooler  than  the  ocean  and  hence  the  moisture-laden 
winds  blowing  in  from  the  Pacific  precipitate  a great,  amount  of 
rain  on  the  windward  or  western  side  of  both  the  Coast  Ranges 
and  the  Cascades.  Twenty  times  as  much  rain  falls  on  the  Olym- 
pic Mountains,  near  the  Pacific  coast,  as  falls  in  certain  parts  of 
the  state  east  of  the  Cascade  Mountains.  In  western  Washington, 
Oregon,  and  northern  California  are  found  the  most  magnificent 
forests  in  the  world  (Fig.  214).  So  great  is  the  tempering  effect 
of  the  Pacific  upon  the  west  coast  as  far  north  as  Alaska,  that 
Sitka,  900  miles  farther  north  than  Halifax,  Nova  Scotia,  has  the 
same  average  temperature. 

The  Climate  of  Western  Europe.  — The  warming  influence  of 
the  Atlantic  on  the  winter  climate  of  western  Europe  is  so  great 
that  the  effect  of  the  northerly  latitude  is  largely  offset.  Ocean 
currents,  especially  the  Gulf  Stream,  bring  a great  amount  of  heat 
into  the  north  Atlantic;  the  westerlies  absorb  this  heat  and  carry 
it  over  Europe.  But  if  there  were  no  Gulf  Stream,  the  warming 
influence  of  the  Atlantic  would  still  be  great.  The  British  Isles 
and  the  coast  of  Norway  have  heavy  rainfall  and  are  as  mild  in 
winter  as  are  our  middle  Atlantic  states,  which  are  from  a thou- 
sand to  fifteen  hundred  miles  farther  south.  The  west  coast  of 
Europe,  like  the  west  coast  of  the  United  States,  has  more  rain  in 
the  north  than  in  the  south.  The  winter  temperatures  of  much 
of  Europe  change  more  from  west  to  east  than  from  south  to  north. 
Rainfall  also  decreases  steadily  from  west  to  east  across  Europe. 
The  warming  influence  of  the  Atlantic  is  carried  much  farther  into 
Europe  than  that  of  the  Pacific  is  into  North  America  because 
Europe  has  no  high  mountain  barrier  on  its  west  side  as  North 
America  has.  The  effect  of  the  Atlantic  upon  winter  tempera- 
tures in  central  Europe  is  shown  by  five  rivers  in  Germany.  Ice 
lies  on  the  Rhine  an  average  of  26  days  in  a year ; on  the  Elbe,  62 
days;  on  the  Oder,  still  farther  east,  70  days;  on  the  Vistula,  86 
days;  and  on  the  Memel,  mainly  in  Russia,  116  days.  In 
summer  the  ocean  cools  the  winds  that  blow  over  west-facing  coasts 
and  give  to  the  British  Isles,  for  example,  summers  as  cool  as  those 
of  Newfoundland  and  Labrador. 


CLIMATE  AND  ITS  INFLUENCE 


307 


Fig.  216.  ■ — Rainfall  of  the  world.  ( After  Herbertson  and  Taylor.) 


308 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Climate  of  the  Interior  of  the  United  States.  — With  the  excep- 
tion of  land  near  the  Pacific,  and  scattered  regions  of  high  altitude, 
the  western  third  of  the  United  States  is  arid  or  semiarid.  West 
of  the  100th  meridian  the  rainfall  averages  less  than  20  inches  a 
year,  and  ordinary  agriculture  is  rarely  successful  in  any  region 
where  the  annual  rainfall  is  below  20  inches.  Large  parts  of  the 
Great  Basin,  included  in  Arizona,  New  Mexico,  Nevada,  Utah, 
and  parts  of  some  other  states,  are  true  deserts,  because  rain-bear- 
ing winds  blowing  from  any  direction  are  intercepted  by  mountains. 
Throughout  the  Great  Basin  agriculture  is  largely  (though  not 
wholly)  dependent  upon  irrigation. 

The  High  Plains.  — A tier  of  states  from  the  Dakotas  southward 
to  Texas,  the  “high  plains”  states,  have  enough  rainfall  for  crops 
nearly  every  year,  but  partial  crop  failures  sometimes  occur  in  the 
western  part  of  these  states  on  account  of  drought.  However, 
dry-farming  and  the  introduction  of  drought-resisting  crops 
are  helping  to  remedy  these  conditions  and  these  states  are  pro- 
ducers of  enormous  quantities  of  cereals.  This  was  once  a grazing 
belt,  the  land  of  the  cowboy.  It  is  now  our  principal  wheat-grow- 
ing belt.  Eastward  from  the  100th  meridian  the  rainfall  increases 
rather  steadily  to  30,  40,  and  50  inches. 

The  Mississippi  Valley  is  a region  of  great  agricultural  prosper- 
ity, nevertheless  heavy  losses  are  occasionally  sustained  from  too 
much  or  too  little  rain.  These  losses  may  reach  a total  of  hundreds 
of  millions  of  dollars  in  a single  year,  but  they  are  spread  over  so 
great  a number  of  states  that  their  effect  is  seldom  disastrous. 

Lying  in  the  belt  of  cyclonic  storms,  the  region  is  subject  to 
rapid  changes  of  weather  and  wide  extremes  of  temperature.  In 
the  interior  the  summers  are  hot  and  the  northern  winters  are 
severely  cold.  The  temperature  in  the  most  northerly  states  may 
fall  as  low  as  40°  below  zero  and  rise  to  100°  or  higher.  Through- 
out the  interior,  rain,  largely  derived  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  is 
most  frequent  in  spring  and  summer,  a highly  favorable  condition. 

The  Gulf  states  rarely  have  snow  and  the  growing  season  for 
plants  (period  between  the  last  killing  frost  in  the  spring  and  the 
first  in  the  fall)  is  from  7 to  8 months  long. 


CLIMATE  AND  ITS  INFLUENCE 


309 


Climate  of  the  Eastern  Coast  of  the  United  States.  — This  may 
be  taken  as  a type  of  an  east-facing  coast  in  the  region  of  the  pre- 
vailing westerlies.  The  land  immediately  bordering  on  the  At- 
lantic has  a more  equable  temperature  than  the  interior  of  the 
continent ; but  the  influence  of  the  ocean  does  not  reach  far  inland 
because  the  prevail ’ug  winds  come  from  the  west.  In  the  middle 
Atlantic  states  the  wind  blows  from  the  western  quarter  three 
times  as  much  as  from  any  other  quarter.  The  weather  is  exceed- 


ingly changeable ; the  winters  of  New  England  and  New  York  are 
severe  and  the  summers  are  fairly  hot.  The  frequent  passing  of 
cyclones  along  the  northern  storm  tracks  causes  indrafts  of  moist 
air  from  the  Atlantic  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  gives  the  eastern 
states  ample  rainfall  amounting  to  40  to  50  inches  north  of  Vir- 
ginia and  50  to  60  inches  south  of  that  state. 

From  Florida  to  Maine  the  average  temperature  decreases  rather 
steadily.  For  example,  fruit  trees  blossom  three  weeks  earlier  in 
northern  Delaware  than  they  do  150  miles  north,  near  New  York 


310 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


City.  Recall  that  a distance  of  500  miles  north  and  south  on  our 
Pacific  coast  makes  little  difference  in  the  average  temperature, 
while  a third  of  that  distance  along  the  Atlantic  coast  makes  three 
weeks’  difference  in  the  time  of  blossoming  of  fruit  trees.  This 


Fig.  218.  — Average  length  of  the  growing  season,  or  the  period  between  the  last 
killing  frost  in  spring  and  the  first  in  autumn.  ( After  Ward  in  Geog.  Rev.) 


illustrates  one  of  the  differences  between  west-facing  coasts  with 
their  oceanic  climate  and  east-facing  coasts  with  their  continental 
climate. 


Summary  of  Climate  and  Man 

In  the  Far  North  the  conditions  of  life  are  so  hard  and  the  strug- 
gle for  existence  is  so  unceasing  that  only  a comparatively  few 
people  live  there.  Within  the  polar  circles  the  longest  period  of 
light  or  darkness  (disregarding  refraction  or  twilight;  see  p.  296) 
varies  from  24  hours  at  the  circles  to  six  months  at  the  poles.  The 
Antarctic  continent  is  larger  than  Australia  but  is  deeply  covered 
with  ice  and  snow  and  has  no  permanent  inhabitants. 


CLIMATE  AND  ITS  INFLUENCE 


311 


The  equatorial  lowlands  are  regions  of  excessive  rains  and  dense 
vegetation.  The  climate,  always  sultry  and  depressing,  robs 
man  of  ambition ; agriculture  is  an  incessant  fight  against  weeds. 
Sustained  effort  is  disagreeable  ; work  is  irksome  ; thrift  and  fore- 
thought are  not  necessary  to  existence,  and  so  are  little  practiced ; 
thus,  the  native  tribes  would,  of  themselves,  scarcely  rise  above 
barbarism.  Tropical  diseases  make  it  dangerous  for  white  men  to 
continue  long  in  these  lowlands,  which,  as  a result,  remain,  and 
are  likely  long  to  remain,  among  the  most  undeveloped  parts  of 
the  earth. 

In  the  tropical  highlands,  altitude  offsets  latitude,  and  an  agree- 
able and  healthful,  yet  monotonous,  climate  prevails.  In  western 
America,  from  Bolivia  to  Mexico,  the  larger  part  of  the  people 
live  on  the  plateaus  or  in  the  high  mountain  valleys.  Here  the 
climate  is  cool  — even  cold  in  Bolivia ; it  is  dry  and  fairly  stimu- 
lating for  a while,  yet  entirely  lacking  the  tonic  quality  of  the  win- 
ters of  the  temperate  zone.  These  regions  are  far  better  suited 
to  man’s  progress  than  are  the  tropical  lowlands,  yet  they  have 
not  given  the  world  any  strong  nation. 

The  trade  wind  belts  are  prevailingly  dry  on  land,  though  not  nec- 
essarily so.  Where  the  trades  blow  from  sea  to  land  and  encoun- 
ter mountains,  they  cause  heavy  rainfall.  On  land  these  winds, 
blowing  ever  toward  a warmer  latitude  and  so  becoming  warmer, 
take  up  moisture  and  cause  the  greatest  deserts  of  the  world, 
notably  the  Sahara  and  the  Arabian  Desert.  The  population  of 
the  desert  is  relatively  small  yet  larger  than  is  generally  supposed. 
The  oases  are  usually  peopled  with  a settled  population,  but  the 
desert  tribes  are  nomadic  and  lawless.  When  they  feel  the  pinch 
of  hunger,  as  they  often  do,  they  turn  robbers  and  marauders, 
attacking  caravans  and  raiding  other  tribes.  This  trait  of  the 
desert  peoples  is  so  general  that  it  has  evidently  been  bred  in 
them  by  the  hard  life  of  the  desert. 

The  temperate  zones  are  clearly  the  best  suited  to  human  prog- 
ress. The  four  seasons  have  taught  man  the  need  of  a season  of 
sowing,  a season  of  growth,  a season  of  harvest,  and  a season  of 
rest  and  recuperation.  The  cyclonic  storms  which  are  such  an 


312 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


important  element  in  the  weather  are  believed  to  stimulate  mental 
and  physical  energy.  In  the  temperate  zones,  as  nowhere  else, 
man  has  learned  thrift,  industry,  efficiency,  and  the  value  of  sta- 
ble government.  Here  he  has  acquired  the  work  habit  and  finds 
it  agreeable.  Here  nature  is  not  so  generous  in  her  gifts  as  in 
the  torrid  zone,  yet  she  rewards  effort  much  more  abundantly 
than  she  does  in  the  frigid  zones.  Here  in  the  middle  latitudes 
man  finds  the  “ happy  climatic  mean,”  and  has  reached  his  highest 
development.  A few  nations  in  the  north  temperate  zone  domi- 
nate the  world’s  affairs,  and  the  most  progressive  peoples  of  the 
southern  hemisphere  are  those  of  the  south  temperate  zone. 

EXERCISE  XX 

Review  Questions  on  Climate 


1.  Define  climate. 

2.  How  does  climate  differ  from  weather? 

3.  What  evidences  have  we  that  in  parts  of  the  world  the  climate  of  the 
past  differed  from  that  of  the  present? 

4.  What  are  the  most  important  elements  of  climate? 

5.  Upon  what  conditions  does  the  average  temperature  of  a place 
mainly  depend? 

6.  What  is  the  source  of  practically  all  of  the  heat  that  warms  the  earth  ? 

7.  Describe  the  way  in  which  waves  of  energy  from  the  sun  yield  light 
and  heat. 

8.  Why  are  the  polar  regions  cold  and  the  equatorial  belt  hot? 

9.  Why  are  slanting  rays  from  the  sun  less  effective  in  heating  the  land 
than  perpendicular  rays? 

10.  Why  do  we  not  have  summer  when  the  earth  is  nearest  the  sun? 

11.  Why  is  the  summer  of  the  southern  hemisphere  not  warmer  than  that 
of  the  northern? 

12.  Why  do  mountains  usually  receive  considerable  rainfall? 

13.  Why  do  high  plateaus  usually  have  a dry  climate? 

14.  Explain  how  large  bodies  of  water  influence  the  climate  of  the  adja- 
cent land. 

15.  Point  out  the  effect  of  the  Great  Lakes  upon  fruit-growing  in  their 
vicinity. 

16.  Why  do  oceanic  islands  have  an  equable  temperature? 

17.  What  are  some  of  the  important  effects  of  winds  upon  climate?  Give 
examples. 

18.  How  do  ocean  currents  influence  climate?  Give  examples. 

19.  Explain  how  topography  influences  climate.  Give  examples. 

20.  How  does  topography  influence  rainfall? 


CLIMATE  AND  ITS  INFLUENCE 


313 


21.  How  long  is  the  longest  “day”  at  the  poles?  at  the  polar  circles? 
at  70°  latitude?  at  Hammerfest,  Norway? 

22.  Describe  the  conditions  of  life  in  the  Far  North. 

23.  What  are  the  main  features  of  climate  in  equatorial  lowlands?  in 
equatorial  highlands  ? 

24.  Name  some  of  the  countries  which  include  large  areas  of  tropical  low- 
lands ; of  tropical  highlands. 

25.  Tell  something  of  the  conditions  of  human  life  in  these  regions. 

26.  Point  out  important  ways  in  which  climate  affects  people  and  their 
stage  of  civilization. 

27.  Why  do  the  trade  wind  belts  include  much  desert?  Name  and  locate 
some  of  these  deserts. 

28.  Under  what  conditions  do  the  trade  winds  yield  heavy  rainfall  ? Give 
an  example. 

29.  Where  are  the  savanna  belts?  Why  do  they  have  alternate  wet  and 
dry  seasons? 

30.  To  what  use  are  the  savannas  best  suited?  Why  are  they  sparsely 
populated  ? 

31.  What  are  the  main  characteristics  of  the  climate  of  the  north  tem- 
perate zone? 

32.  Describe  the  principal  features  of  the  climates  of  the  Pacific  coast  of 
North  America. 

33.  Account  for  the  peculiarities  of  the  rainfall  of  different  parts  of  that 
coast. 

34.  Why  is  fruit-growing  highly  successful  in  California  ? 

35.  Account  for  the  dense  forests  of  western  Washington  and  the  dryness 
of  eastern  Washington. 

36.  Why  is  the  winter  temperature  of  the  coast  of  Alaska  milder  than 
that  of  the  coast  of  Labrador? 

37.  Account  for  the  mild  climate  of  the  British  Isles  and  of  the  coast  of 
Norway. 

38.  Why  does  the  interior  of  the  United  States  have  such  changeable 
weather  and  such  a wide  range  of  temperature? 

39.  In  what  parts  of  the  United  States  is  rainfall  ample  for  the  needs  of 
agriculture?  In  what  parts  is  it  inadequate? 

40.  At  least  how  many  inches  of  rainfall  are  needed  for  ordinary  agricul- 
ture in  the  United  States? 

41.  Why  is  the  grazing  of  cattle  or  sheep  extensively  practiced  in  lands 
having  low  rainfall  ? 

42.  Name  some  crops  which  are  especially  sensitive  to  cold. 

43.  From  what  bodies  of  water  is  the  rainfall  of  the  central  United  States 
mainly  drawn? 

44.  Why  is  there  a much  wider  variation  in  temperature  along  our  Atlantic 
coast  than  along  our  Pacific  coast? 


CHAPTER  XVI 


THE  OCEAN  AND  ITS  SHORES 

Extent  of  the  Ocean.  — The  ocean  waters  cover  about  three- 
fourths  of  the  surface  of  the  earth.  This  is  quite  in  contrast  with 
the  moon,  which  has  no  oceans,  and  Mars,  our  nearest  neighbor 
among  the  planets,  which  has  none  so  far  as  can  be  discovered. 
The  proportion  of  land  and  water  surface  on  the  earth  undergoes  a 
slow  change.  At  one  time  or  another  shallow  ocean  waters  have 
covered  almost  every  part  of  the  continents  as  the  sea-laid  sedi- 
mentary rocks  show.  If  the  earth  were  a perfectly  smooth  globe, 
the  ocean  waters  would  cover  its  entire  surface  to  a depth  of  1.7 
miles.  Instead  of  being  smooth,  however,  the  surface  of  the  earth 
has  broad  depressions,  and  in  these  the  ocean  waters  collect. 
There  is  more  than  sufficient  water  to  fill  them,  and  so  the  ocean 
spreads  over  nearly  10,000,000  square  miles  of  low  land  along  the 
borders  of  the  continents  (Fig.  2).  Unlike  the  continents,  the 
oceans  are  all  connected  ; they  really  form  one  great  body  of  water, 
but  it  is  convenient  to  have  names  for  the  different  portions,  and 
so  we  speak  of  the  Atlantic,  Pacific,  Indian,  Arctic,  and  Antarctic 
oceans. 

The  Ocean  Basins.  ■ — The  deepest  known  part  of  the  ocean  is 
over  32,000  feet,  or  a little  over  6 miles  (near  the  Philippine 
Islands).  Since,  in  this  latitude,  the  Pacific  is  over  6000  miles 
broad,  the  greatest  depth  is  only  reVo  of  the  width.  A fine 
hair-line  drawn  across  this  page  would  be  too  thick  in  proportion  to 
its  length  to  represent  the  comparative  depth  and  width  of  the 
Pacific,  or  any  of  the  other  oceans.  However,  the  ocean  basins  dip 
below  the  level  of  the  sea  more  than  the  continents  rise  above  that 
level.  If  all  the  land  which  is  above  sea  level  were  scraped  off 

314 


THE  OCEAN  AND  ITS  SHORES 


315 


Fig.  219.  — The  rocky  New  England  coast.  ( Courtesy  of  B.  & M.  R.  R.) 


and  dumped  into  the  ocean  basins,  it  would  not  go  far  toward  filling 
them. 

The  ocean  bottom  is  for  the  most  part  a plain.  Near  the  continents  and 
oceanic  islands  steep  slopes  occur,  but  since  no  streams  are  eroding  valleys 
under  the  sea,  and  since  sediments  are  being  constantly  deposited  on  the 
ocean  bottom,  it  is  a vast  and  monotonous  plain.  There  are,  of  course,  great 
sags  and  swells,  over  which  the  water  is  deeper  or  shallower  as  the  case  may 
be,  and  some  of  the  “deeps”  have  quite  abrupt  slopes;  yet  the  steepest  of 
these  are  much  less  abrupt  than  those  on  land.  A broad  swell,  or  ridge,  ex- 
tends north  and  south  through  the  mid-Atlantic,  reaching  in  places  within  a 
mile  or  less  of  the  surface  of  the  sea.  Chains  of  islands,  such  as  the  Japanese 
Islands  or  the  West  Indies,  are  mountain  chains  rising  from  the  sea  floor; 
the  islands  are  the  higher  portions  of  the  mountain  chain,  while  shoals  are 
the  elevations  which  do  not  quite  reach  the  surface. 

Ocean  Bottom  Deposits.  — Near  the  shores  of  the  continents,  rivers  are 
dumping  sand,  silt,  and  clay  into  the  sea,  and  the  shore  currents  and  tides 
are  distributing  these  over  the  sea  bottom  near  the  coasts.  Only  the  finest 


316 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


of  the  river-brought  sediments  are  carried  more  than  a few  hundred  miles 
out  to  sea.  Most  of  them  are  deposited  on  the  continental  shelf,  as  the 
submerged  margin  of  a continent  is  called. 

Somewhat  less  than  half  of  the  ocean  is  two  miles  or  less  in  depth,  and 
this  portion  is  covered  with  an  ooze  formed  mainly  of  the  skeletons  of  mi- 
croscopic creatures.  More  than  half  of  the  ocean  is  over  two  miles  deep, 
and  here  the  sea-bottom  sediments  form  a peculiar  red  clay  made  up  of  those 
parts  of  the  tiny  skeletons  which  do  not  dissolve.  These  last-mentioned 
sediments  accumulate  very,  very  slowly. 


Fig.  220.  — Coral  growth,  low  tide.  ( Field  Museum.) 


Composition  of  the  Ocean  Water.  — The  rivers  carry  dissolved 
mineral  matter  to  the  sea,  and,  as  the  ocean  waters  are  evaporated 
by  the  sun  and  wind,  this  dissolved  mineral  matter  is  left  behind  in 
the  ocean.  Two  of  the  minerals  dissolved  in  the  sea  are  common 
salt  and  carbonate  of  lime.  The  latter  is  taken  up  by  animal  life 
and  used  in  making  their  shells  and  skeletons.  The  corals,  for 
example,  extract  lime  from  the  sea  and  build  coral  reefs  of  great 
extent  (Fig.  220).  The  salt  is  not  much  used  by  sea  life  and  so  it 


THE  OCEAN  AND  ITS  SHORES 


317 


accumulates  age  after  age ; the  ocean  now  contains  enough  salt  to 
make  a layer  175  feet  thick  over  its  entire  bed.  Many  other  kinds 
of  dissolved  mineral  matter  are  found  in  the  sea,  the  total  forming 
about  parts  to  each  hundred  parts  of  water. 

Temperatures  of  the  Ocean. — Under  the  same  conditions  the  land  heats 
and  cools  about  four  times  as  rapidly  as  the  sea,  and  so  the  temperature  of 
the  ocean  varies  from  season  to  season  much  less  than  that  of  the  land.  In 
any  one  place  the  ocean  temperature  seldom  varies  more  than  10  degrees 
during  the  year,  while  land  temperatures  often  vary  more  than  ten  times 
that  amount.  In  the  equatorial  region  the  surface  of  the  sea  averages  about 
80°  F.  In  the  inclosed  Red  Sea  the  surface  temperature  may  rise  to  90°  or 
even  higher.  In  the  polar  regions  the  temperature  is  as  low  as  28°  F.,  at  which 
point  salt  water  freezes.  Proceeding  from  the  equator  toward  the  poles, 
the  temperature  of  the  ocean  does  not  decrease  uniformly.  In  some  places 
i warm  currents  or  drifts  reach  far  toward  the  poles,  and  elsewhere  cold  cur- 
i rents  from  high  latitudes  reach  far  into  the  temperate  zones  (Fig.  222).  As 
a rule  the  ocean  becomes  colder  with  increasing  depth,  but  below  4000  feet 
the  temperature  is  found  to  be  between  35°  and  40°  F.,  and  at  the  greatest 
; depth  to  be  below  35°.  Only  in  the  frigid  and  in  the  very  cold  parts  of  the 
' temperate  zones  does  the  ocean  water  freeze.  Nearly  all  the  ports  on  the 
! west  side  of  North  America  and  Europe  are  open  throughout  the  year ; those 
in  North  America  from  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  southward  never  freeze. 

* The  great  amount  of  ocean  surface,  and  the  comparatively  slight  change 
| in  ocean  temperature  from  season  to  season  have  a most  beneficial  effect 
upon  the  earth’s  climate.  Were  it  not  for  this  influence  of  the  ocean,  the 
extreme  temperatures  on  land  in  the  temperate  zone  would  be  almost,  if  not 
quite,  unbearable. 

Life  in  the  Ocean.  — Air,  which  is  necessary  to  plant  and  animal 
life,  is  dissolved  in  the  ocean  water,  but  it  is  mainly  confined  to  the 
upper  portion.  Light  in  only  a small  amount  penetrates  below 
300  feet,  hence  plants  or  animals  requiring  light  cannot  live  at  a 
depth  much  greater  than  this ; but  a little  plant  life  is  found  down 
to  depths  of  1000  feet.  While  there  are  microscopic  creatures  in 
every  part  of  the  sea,  most  of  the  life  is  found  in  the  uppermost  300 
feet  of  water.  Some  life  exists  even  in  the  deepest  water,  but  it  is 
exceedingly  scanty  in  the  intermediate  portions,  that  is,  between 
the  bottom  of  the  sea  and  the  300  feet  at  the  top.  At  great  depths 
the  pressure  is  enormous,  and  fish  which  live  there  are  especially 
constructed  to  resist  this  pressure.  When  caught  and  raised  to  the 
surface  they  sometimes  burst  or  “explode.”  Some  of  the  deep- 


318 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


sea  fish  have  eyes  and  some  have  none,  and  many  species  of  sea 
creatures  are  phosphorescent ; that  is,  they  emit  a light  somewhat 
like  that  given  out  by 
the  head  of  a match 
when  it  is  slightly 
rubbed  in  the  dark. 

The  animal  life  of 
the  sea  is  almost  end- 
less in  variety ; it  in- 
cludes the  largest  ex- 
isting animal,  the 
whale,  and  many  oth- 
ers of  large  size,  such 
as  seals,  sea  lions,  and 
walruses.  Most  forms 
of  animal  life  in  the 
sea  extract  lime  car- 
bonate from  the  water 
and  with  it  build  their 
own  skeletons  or  shells. 

Conspicuous  among 
them  is  the  tiny  coral 
polyp  which  lives  in 
colonies  of  millions  and 
builds  coral  reefs  some- 
times hundreds  of  miles 
in  extent.  The  lime- 
stone rocks  which 

cover  large  areas  of  the  earth  are  largely  composed  of  material  cob 
lected  and  deposited  by  animal  life  in  the  sea. 

Food  from  the  Sea.  - — It  is  estimated  that  man  obtains  at  least 
$500,000,000  worth  of  food  from  the  sea  each  year ; this  is  largely 
made  up  of  oysters,  clams,  lobsters,  cod,  mackerel,  herring,  and 
many  kinds  of  fish  caught  near  shore  or  in  the  shallow  waters  like 
the  North  Sea,  or  on  the  so-called  fishing-banks,  like  those  south 
of  Newfoundland. 


Fig.  221.  — Magnified  skeletons  of  minute  creatures1 
that  make  up  the  ooze  on  portions  of  the  sea  bot- 
tom. ( Field  Museum,.) 


THE  OCEAN  AND  ITS  SHORES 


319 


Movements  of  Ocean  Waters 

Wind  Waves.  — As  the  wind  blows  over  the  water,  the  friction 
of  the  moving  air  upon  the  surface  of  the  water  heaps  it  up  into 
waves,  the  size  of  the  wave  depending  upon  the  violence  of  the 
wind.  The  wave  form  moves  forward  with  the  wind,  but  the 
movement  of  the  water  in  the  wrave  is  mainly  up  and  down,  as 
may  be  seen  by  observing  a floating  piece  of  wood.  Some  of  the 
surface  water  is  dragged  forward  by  the  wind,  although  far  more 
slowly  than  the  wave  itself  progresses.  Upon  reaching  shallow 
water  near  shore,  the  bottom  of  the  wave  is  retarded  by  friction 
upon  the  sea  bottom  and  the  top  of  the  wave  tumbles  forward, 
forming  white-crested  breakers. 

Ocean  Currents. — Wherever  the  wind  blows  more  or  less 
constantly  over  the  ocean  in  one  general  direction,  the  surface 
water  is  set  in  motion  in  the  same  direction  and  a surface  current 
or  drift  is  produced.  These  are  by  no  means  so  well  defined  as  the 
map  (Fig.  222)  seems  to  indicate.  In  most  cases  they  are  to  be 
thought  of  rather  as  slow  drifts  of  surface  water  than  as  dis- 
tinct currents. 

The  Equatorial  Currents.  — In  both  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
oceans  the  trade  winds  produce  westward-moving'  currents  on  each 
side  of  the  heat  equator,  while  between  these  is  a return  current 
moving  eastward  (Fig.  222). 

The  Gulf  Stream.  — The  equatorial  currents  of  the  Atlantic 
divide  as  they  approach  the  wedgelike  nose  of  South  America. 
The  northern  branch  flows  through  the  Caribbean  Sea,  whence  part 
of  it  passes  northward  by  way  of  the  West  Indies,  and  part  enters 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  A large  amount  of  fresh  water  also  flows  into 
the  Gulf  from  rivers.  The  water  that  flows  through  the  narrow 
strait  between  Cuba  and  Florida  and  thence  in  a northeasterly 
direction  is  known  as  the  Gulf  Stream.  As  it  leaves  the  Strait  of 
Florida  it  has  a velocity  of  5 miles  an  hour,  is  50  miles  wide,  and 
occupies  the  entire  channel.  For  hundreds  of  miles  its  course 
through  the  Atlantic  can  be  noted  by  the  warmth,  color,  and  mo- 
tion of  its  water.  Some  distance  out  from  the  strait,  the  Gulf 


320 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


0 )g! 


m 


111 


A * I W’A  / , 

^X~T  0'*; 


IW«, 


% 


wwft 


VO.cC 

V/  i 

/tlV 


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Fig.  222.  • — Ocean,  currents  of  the  world.  ( Tarr  and  McMurry.) 


THE  OCEAN  AND  ITS  SHORES 


321 


Stream  is  joined  by  the  warm  water  which  has  come  from  the 
equatorial  region  by  way  of  the  West  Indies  (Fig.  222) ; before  the 
mid-Atlantic  is  reached,  the  “ stream  ” has  spread  out  more  and 
more  fanlike,  its  rate  of  movement  continues  to  diminish  and  it 
merges  into  what  is  known  as  the  North  Atlantic  Drift,  with  a 
movement  of  only  8 or  9 miles  a day.  So  much  heat  is  thus 
carried  into  the  North  Atlantic  that  Norway,  in  the  latitude  of 
Greenland,  has  a fairly  mild  winter  climate  and  its  ports  are  never 
frozen  ; the  British  Isles  are  as  mild  in  winter  as  Maryland,  1400 
miles  farther  south. 

The  Labrador  Current  (Fig.  222),  and  other  return  currents  both 
at  the  surface  and  below,  carry  back  toward  the  equator  the  water 
which  drifted  north  in  the  Gulf  Stream  and  North  Atlantic 
Drift.  The  Labrador  Current  flows  close  to  the  coast  of  Labra- 
dor, Newfoundland,  and  Nova  Scotia,  and  exerts  a cooling  in- 
fluence on  the  Canadian  and  New  England  coasts.  Near 
Newfoundland  it  encounters  the  warm  North  Atlantic  Drift, 
and  the  mixing  of  the  cold  and  warm  air  over  these  waters 
causes  dense  fogs,  which  are  dreaded  by  navigators,  particularly 
on  account  of  the  gigantic  icebergs  that  float  south  in  the 
Labrador  Current. 

Currents  of  the  Pacific.  — The  Pacific  has  its  equatorial  currents, 
its  Japan  Current  which  corresponds  to  the  Gulf  Stream  of  the 
Atlantic,  and  its  west  wind  drift.  The  Japan  Current  is  less  dis- 
tinct and  less  important  than  the  Gulf  Stream.  The  North  Pacific 
drift  of  warm  water  imparts  its  temperature  to  the  westerly  winds 
and  they  give  a mild  oceanic  climate  to  the  Pacific  coast  of  North 
America ; but  because  of  the  mountains  near  the  Pacific  coast 
the  oceanic  influence  is  not  carried  so  far  into  North  America  as 
it  is  into  Europe  from  the  Atlantic. 

The  Currents  of  the  Southern  Hemisphere  are  less  important 
than  those  of  the  northern,  mainly  because  the  oceans  of  the  north- 
ern hemisphere  are  used  more  and  because  the  northern  continents 
are  larger  and  more  populous  than  the  southern.  The  position  and 
direction  of  the  currents  of  the  southern  hemisphere  are  shown  in 
Fig.  222. 


322 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Causes  of  Ocean  Currents.  - — The  close  agreement  between  the 
direction  of  the  prevailing  winds  and  that  of  the  principal  ocean 
currents  and  drifts  leaves  no  room  for  doubt  that  these  winds  are 
the  main  cause  of  the  currents.  Yet  they  are  not  the  sole  cause. 
Wherever  the  wind  forces  the  water  to  move  away  from  any  portion 
of  the  sea,  other  water  flows  in  to  take  its  place,  and  thus  an  ex- 
tensive and  complex  circulation  is  set  up.  There  are  also  other 
causes  for  the  circulation  of  ocean  waters,  such  as  unequal  heating, 
differences  in  salinity,  and  the  inflowing  of  rivers.  The  direction 
of  the  main  currents  is  determined  not  only  by  the  direction  of  the 
prevailing  winds,  but  also  by  the  earth’s  rotation,  and  by  the  shape 
of  the  continents. 

Tides.  — An  observer  at  almost  any  port  may  note  that  during 
periods  of  about  6 hours  each  day  the  water  rises,  and  during 
following  periods  of  about  6 hours  it  falls.  This  rising  and  sinking 
of  the  water  is  known  as  the  tide.  During  the  rising  or  incoming 
movement  the  tide  is  said  to  flow,  and  the  highest  water  is  called 
flood  tide;  the  outgoing  or  receding  movement  is  ebb  tide.  There 
are  ordinarily  two  flood  tides  and  two  ebb  tides  every  24  hours  and 
52  minutes. 

Cause  of  Tides.  — This  rising  of  the  tide  is  due  mainly  to  the 
attraction  of  the  moon  and  also  in  a lesser  degree  to  the  attraction 
of  the  sun  upon  the  ocean  waters.  Though  the  moon  is  much 
smaller  than  the  sun,  it  is  only  as  far  away  from  the  earth,  and 
this  makes  it  more  effective  in  producing  tides.  When  the  sun, 
moon,  and  earth  are  about  in  a straight  line,  and  so  are  pulling  to- 
gether, the  highest  tides,  called  spring  tides,  are  produced  (Fig. 
223) ; and  when  the  sun  and  moon  are  about  at  right  angles  and  so 
are  pulling  in  different  directions,  the  lowest,  or  neap  tides,  are  pro- 
duced (Fig.  224).  Not  only  does  the  moon’s  (or  sun’s)  attraction 
cause  a tidal  wave  on  the  side  of  the  earth  which  is  toward  the  moon 
(or  sun)  but  it  also  causes  one  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  earth,  a 
fact  which  cannot  be  adequately  explained  in  a simple  way,  and  is 
not  here  attempted.  Since  there  are  always  tidal  waves  or 
“bulges”  on  opposite  sides  of  the  earth,  and  since  the  earth  rotates 
daily  upon  its  axis,  a point  on  the  coast  is  visited  by  both  of  these 


THE  OCEAN  AND  ITS  SHORES 


323 


Fig.  223.  - — Showing  the  relative  positions  of  sun,  moon,  and  earth  at  spring  tide. 
The  black  portion  of  the  earth  represents  the  tide,  very  greatly  exaggerated  in 
depth. 


© 

Fig.  224.  — Showing  the  relative  positions  of  sun,  moon,  and  earth  at  neap  tide. 
The  moon  may  occupy  either  of  the  two  positions  shown,  but,  of  course,  not 
both  positions  at  one  time. 


tidal  waves  every  24  hours  and  52  minutes,  the  time  from  moon- 
rise  to  moon-rise. 

Height  of  the  Tide.  — In  the  open  sea,  the  average  difference 
between  high  and  low  tide  is  only  about  2 feet,  but  in  V-shaped 


324 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


bays  which  become  narrower  toward  their  heads  the  tide  may  rise 
10,  20,  and  even  50  feet,  as  in  the  Bay  of  Fundy.  Ships  of  deep 
draught  frequently  select  flood  tide  for  entering  and  leaving  har- 
bors. Indeed,  many  harbors  could  not  be  used  by  large  ships  were 
it  not  for  the  assistance  of  the  tides. 

The  Ocean  and  Mankind 

The  Ocean  as  a Source  of  Rainfall  and  a Distributer  of  Heat.  — 

The  ocean  is  the  source  from  which  the  winds  obtain  the  larger 
part  of  the  moisture  which  they  distribute  over  the  land  as  rain, 
and  it  is  rain  that  makes  the  difference  between  the  desert,  the 
semiarid  land,  and  the  fruitful  farmland  where  millions  dwell  in 
plenty. 

The  ocean  is  a vast  storage  reservoir  of  heat.  The  tropical  seas 
absorb  the  sun’s  heat  throughout  the  year,  and  those  of  the  temper- 
ate zone  absorb  it  in  summer.  By  means  of  the  ocean  currents 
this  heat  is  carried  into  colder  latitudes  and  distributed  over  the 
land  by  the  winds. 

The  Oceans  as  Barriers  and  as  Boundaries.  — Up  to  a few  cen- 
turies ago  the  oceans  so  effectively  separated  the  Eastern  conti- 
nents from  the  Americas  that  the  Old  World  knew  nothing  of  them. 
For  ages  the  oceans  were  the  most  impassable  barriers  that  man 
encountered.  They  are  no  longer  barriers  to  man,  but  they  are 
still  the  most  satisfactory  of  all  boundaries  for  nations. 

Service  to  Commerce.  — In  this  age  of  steam  navigation,  the 
oceans  are  of  great  benefit  to  commerce  between  widely  separated 
parts  of  the  world,  because  of  the  cheapness  of  ocean  transporta- 
tion as  compared  with  land  transportation.  For  example,  the  cost 
of  shipping  wheat  from  Chicago  to  New  York  by  rail  is  from  ten  to 
twenty  times  as  much  per  mile  as  it  is  from  New  York  to  Liver- 
pool by  steamer.  The  amount  of  wool  needed  to  make  a suit  of 
clothes  can  be  sent  (in  large  shipments)  from  Australia  to  England, 
a distance  of  12,000  miles,  for  four  cents. 

Relation  to  Wars.  — The  danger  of  war  between  any  two  nations 
is  very  greatly  lessened  if  they  or  their  possessions  are  separated 
by  a broad  stretch  of  ocean.  With  the  single  exception  of  the 


THE  OCEAN  AND  ITS  SHORES 


325 


Coast  Line 


World  War,  the  only  serious  wars  with  foreign  powers  in  which  the 
United  States  has  ever  been  involved  have  been  with  nations  near 
us  or  having  territory 
on  this  side  of  the 
ocean.  There  was  no 
talk  of  war  with 
Japan  until  we  took 
possession  of  islands 
near  Japan  (the  Philip- 
pines). 


Types  of  Coast  Line. 

— The  nature  of  a 
coast  line  depends 
upon  the  configura- 
tion of  the  land  along 
the  shore  and  upon 
the  rising  or  sinking 
of  the  coast.  The 
land  has  long  been 
subjected  to  stream 
erosion  and  so  is  cut 
up  into  hills  and  val- 
leys, but  the  near-by 
sea  bottom  has  been 
undergoing  an  oppo- 
site process ; it  has  become  smooth  by  the  deposition  of  sedi- 
ments over  its  surface. 

Sinking  Coast.  — If  the  land  along  the  coast  sinks,  the  sea  backs 
up  into  the  mouths  of  the  creeks  and  rivers,  while  the  hills  or  moun- 
tains stand  up  as  headlands  or  islands  extending  out  into  the  water. 
If  the  coast  land  is  hilly  or  mountainous,  as  it  is  in  Maine  or  south- 
ern Alaska,  a very  irregular,  jagged  coast  line  is  produced,  and  if 
the  sinking  is  considerable,  river  mouths  become  deep  bays  (Figs. 
225,  226). 


Fig.  225.  — Sinking  coast  of  a mountainous  region ; 
mountains  become  headlands  and  islands.  A coast 
somewhat  like  that  of  Maine.  ( Model  by  Davis  and, 
Curtis,  Harvard.) 


326 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


If  a low,  nearly  flat  coastal  plain  sinks,  the  shore  line  becomes 
swampy ; the  river  mouths  become  broad,  shallow  estuaries,  as  they 
are  along  the  coast  of  our  south  Atlantic  states ; deep  harbors  are 
rare  or  absent,  and  sand  bars  readily  form  parallel  to  the  shore. 


Fig.  226.  — Map  showing  the  submerged  channel  of  the  St.  Lawrence  River  across 
the  continental  shelf. 


Fiorded  Coasts.  — Norway  presents  the  best  example  of  this 
type  of  coast  (Fig.  227).  It  is  a region  of  rugged  mountains  with 
deep,  stream-cut  valleys  leading  down  to  the  sea.  During  the  Ice 
Age  glaciers  moved  down  these  valleys  and  greatly  deepened  them 
by  ice  erosion.  A sinking  of  the  coast  possibly  accompanied  this, 
and  when  the  glaciers  melted  away,  the  ocean  entered  the  long, 
narrow  valleys,  forming  fiords  (Fig.  228).  Some  of  these  extend 
from  50  to  100  miles  into  the  land  ; the  water  is  often  hundreds  of 
feet  deep,  while  the  precipitous  cliffs  rise  high  above  the  water’s 
edge,  and  thousands  of  islands  fringe  the  coast.  Such  coasts,  found 
only  where  glaciers  have  been,  occur  also  in  southern  Chile,  in 
southern  Alaska,  in  British  Columbia,  in  Labrador,  and  in  New 
Zealand. 


THE  OCEAN  AND  ITS  SHORES 


327 


Fig.  227.  — A portion  of  the  coast  of 
Norway  with  its  many  islands  and  long 
fiords.  Such  a coast  line  is  due  to  (1) 
river  erosion,  followed  by  (2)  glacial 
erosion  and  (3)  probable  sinking  of 
the  coast. 


Rising  Coasts.  — When  a 
coast  is  uplifted  without  being 
deformed,  a strip  of  sandy  sea- 
bottom  is  added  to  the  land  and 
forms  a low,  flat  coastal  plain, 
lacking  in  natural  harbors, 
such  as  the  coast  of  New 
Jersey.  If  mountain  ranges 
are  uplifted  near  the  shore, 
then  a mountain  coast  such  as 
that  of  western  South  America 
and  Mexico,  and  parts  of  Italy 
is  produced  (Figs.  229,  230). 
Along  such  a coast  there  is  little 
or  no  coastal  lowland,  and  very 
few  good  harbors,  making  en- 
trance into  the  continent  from 
the  sea  more  or  less  difficult. 

The  Ever  Changing  Charac- 
ter of  Coasts.  — Not  only  are 
coasts  subject  to  rising  and 
sinking,  but  they  are  constantly 
battered  by  waves  and  eroded 
by  tides  and  shore  currents. 
Headlands  are  worn  off  and 
little  indentations  are  filled 
with  sand  or  have  sand  bars 
built  across  their  mouths.  The 
tendency  is  for  coasts  to  be- 
come more  and  more  regular 
as  time  goes  on,  provided  a 


sinking  of  the  coast  does  not  take  place  (Figs.  232,  233,  234). 

The  Influence  of  Coast  Line.  — Europe  has  the  most  irregular 
coast  line  of  any  of  the  continents,  and  Africa  has  the  most  regular. 
Europe  also  has  the  highest  civilization  and  Africa  the  lowest ; this 
is  due  in  part  to  the  difference  in  the  coast  lines  of  the  two  conti- 
nents, though  difference  in  climate  has  been  a still  more  important 


328 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  228.  — Hardanger  Fiord,  one  of  many  along  the  mountainous  coast  of 
Norway.  ( Physiography  Lab.  Cornell  Unio.) 


Fig.  229.  — The  mountainous  coast  of  Italy  near  Amalfi.  ( Courtesy  W.  H.  Dudley.) 


THE  OCEAN  AND  ITS  SHORES 


329 


Fig.  230.  — The  rugged  Italian  coast  south  of  Naples.  ( Courtesy  W . H.  Dudley.) 

factor.  The  many  peninsulas  and  indentations  of  the  European 
coast  have  given  it  an  exceedingly  long  shore  line,  with  many 
points  at  which  it  can  be  entered  from  the  sea.  On  the  contrary, 
explorers,  traders,  and  travelers  have  found  Africa  difficult  to  pene- 
trate. Thus,  Europe  constantly  received  civilizing  influences  from 
the  outside,  whereas  Africa  did  not. 

The  indented  coast  of  Britain  has  favored  the  development  of 
maritime  people,  and  the  remarkably  indented  coast  of  Norway  has 
played  an  important  part  in  the  history  of  that  country.  The 
Vikings  of  the  Norwegian  coast  were  for  many  centuries  the  bold 
rovers  of  the  northern  seas,  and  Norway  is  to-day  one  of  the  leading 
maritime  nations.  The  coast  of  Greece  has  many  indentations, 
peninsulas,  and  islands ; as  a consequence  the  Greeks  have  long 
been  the  leading  maritime  people  of  the  eastern  Mediterranean. 
The  influence  of  the  coast  line  of  the  United  States  is  discussed 
in  Chapter  XVII. 


330 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  231.  — Example  of  the  low,  tidal  marsh  lands  on  the  edge  of  the  coastal  plain  of  the  southern  states.  (U . S. 

Bur.  of  Soils.) 


THE  OCEAN  AND  ITS  SHORES  331 


Fig.  232.  — A rocky,  wave-cut  coast,  Oregon.  (U.  S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


Fig.  233.  — A specimen  of  New  England’s  granite-ribbed  coast.  ( Courtesy 
B.  and  M.  R.  R.) 


332 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Harbors 

Qualities  of  a Good  Natural  Harbor.  — Many  harbors  that 
once  served  well  the  needs  of  ocean  commerce  are  too  shallow  for 
the  great  ships  of  the  present  day.  A good  modern  harbor  needs 
(a)  to  be  deep  enough  for  the  largest  ships  to  reach  the  piers  (30  to 


Fig.  234.  — An  island  that  is  being  slowly  eaten  away  by  the  attacks  of  the  waves. 


40  feet  deep  near  shore) ; (6)  to  be  spacious  enough  to  afford  an- 
chorage for  many  ships  at  one  time  ; (c)  to  have  a long  water  front, 
permitting  many  piers,  warehouses,  grain  elevators,  coni  docks, 
railway  terminals,  etc. ; ( d ) to  have  a deep  and  direct  entrance 
channel ; ( e ) to  be  well  inclosed  by  land,  giving  protection  from 
storms ; (/)  to  have  an  easy  route  leading  into  the  back  country  or 
“ hinterland  ” ; (g)  to  be  free  from  ice  obstruction  the  year  around  ; 
( h ) to  be  free  from  excessively  high  or  low  tides ; ( i ) to  be  located 


THE  OCEAN  AND  ITS  SHORES 


333 


in  a part  of  a continent  where  land  and  water  routes  naturally  and 
conveniently  meet. 

The  Improvement  of  Harbors.  — There  are  few  if  any  harbors 
which  meet  without  improvements  the  needs  of  modern  commerce. 
The  great  majority  of  harbors  are  the  drowned  mouths  of  rivers. 
The  rivers  deposit  silt,  and  shore  currents  build  sand  bars  across 
the  channels,  so  that  harbors  require  almost  continuous  dredging 
to  remove  the  sediment.  For  example,  the  port  of  Liverpool  re- 
quires the  constant  service  of  from  five  to  seven  powerful  dredges. 
They  remove  annually  about  20,000,000  tons  of  sand,  equivalent 
to  500,000  car-loads.  Piers,  docks,  machinery  for  loading  and  un- 
loading ships,  lights,  railway  terminals,  and  many  other  conven- 
iences and  necessities  make  up  the  equipment  of  a modern  port 
of  entry.  (See  description  of  New  York  Harbor,  page  344.)  It 
has  cost  the  port  of  Glasgow  more  than  $100,000,000  for  improve- 
ments, and  the  port  of  Liverpool  has  expended  $200,000,000  on 
docks.  In  some  cases  a harbor  is  so  poorly  protected  against 
storms  that  an  artificial  wall,  or  breakwater,  has  to  be  built. 

Summary 

The  earth,  unlike  the  moon  or  Mars,  possesses  a large  volume 
of  water  — enough  to  fill  the  great  basins  or  depressions  in  the 
crust,  and  to  submerge  about  10,000,000  square  miles  of  lowland 
belonging  to  the  continents. 

The  greatest  known  depth  of  the  ocean  is  over  6 miles,  yet  even 
the  Pacific  is  a mere  film  of  water  when  its  depth  is  compared 
with  its  length  and  breadth.  The  ocean  bottom  is  a monotonous 
plain  with  broad  swells,  and  occasional  “deeps,”  but  with  few 
steep  slopes. 

The  salt,  lime  carbonate,  and  other  minerals  in  sea  water  are 
mainly  carried  there  by  rivers.  The  lime  carbonate  is  used  by 
animals,  large  and  small,  in  building  their  shells  and  skeletons, 
but  the  salt  remains  in  the  sea  and  slowly  increases  in  amount  as 
the  sea  water  is  evaporated. 

The  temperature  of  the  sea  is  much  more  steady  than  that  of 


334 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


the  land;  it  seldom  changes  more  than  10°  F.  in  any  one  place 
during  the  year.  Since  light  does  not  penetrate  much  beyond 
300  feet  into  the  sea,  the  greater  part  of  the  life  of  the  ocean  is 
found  in  the  more  shallow  waters  and  near  the  surface,  but  some 
life  is  found  in  all  parts. 

The  three  principal  movements  of  the  ocean  are  (1)  waves 
caused  by  the  wind ; (2)  ocean  currents  and  drifts,  which  are 
largely  due  to  the  prevailing  winds,  and  (3)  the  tides  which  are 
caused  by  the  attraction  of  the  moon  and  sun,  the  moon  being 
the  more  important  because  of  its  nearness  to  the  earth. 

The  north  and  south  equatorial  currents  in  both  the  Atlantic 
and  the  Pacific  are  due  to  the  trade  winds.  The  Gulf  Stream  is 
the  most  important  of  all  the  ocean  currents.  In  the  mid-At- 
lantic, it  spreads  out  broadly  and  becomes  the  North  Atlantic 
Drift.  The  mild  climate  of  western  Europe  is  partly  due  to  the 
heat  which  is  derived  from  this  drift  of  warm  water.  The  Japan 
Current  in  the  Pacific  corresponds  in  position  to  the  Gulf  Stream, 
but  is  less  important. 

The  tide  ebbs  and  flows  twice  in  24  hours  and  52  minutes. 
Spring  tides  (high)  are  due  to  the  combined  attraction  of  the  moon 
and  sun.  Neap  tides  (low)  occur  when  the  sun  and  moon  are 
about  at  right  angles  to  each  other. 

The  great  extent  of  ocean  surface  supplies  the  winds  with  abun- 
dant moisture  and  gives  sufficient  rainfall  for  crops  to  more  than 
two-thirds  of  the  land.  If  the  earth  had  less  ocean  and  more 
land,  deserts  would  be  increased.  The  great  amount  of  ocean 
water  has  a tempering  effect  upon  the  climate  of  the  earth  as  a 
whole.  Ocean  currents  carry  an  enormous  amount  of  heat  from 
the  torrid  zone  into  higher  latitudes. 

Speaking  generally,  a sinking  coast  is  irregular  and  may  have 
many  harbors.  A rising  coast  usually  gives  a low  coastal  plain 
with  few  good  harbors.  Irregularity  of  coast  line  is  favorable  to 
intercourse  between  land  and  sea ; this  leads  to  trade,  to  the  ex- 
change of  ideas  between  different  lands,  and  to  the  general  ad- 
vance of  civilization. 

There  are  eight  or  ten  desirable  qualities  of  a first  class  natural 


THE  OCEAN  AND  ITS  SHORES 


335 


harbor.  No  single  harbor  possesses  all  of  these,  and  even  the 
best  harbors  require  constant  attention  and  expensive  improve- 
ments. 

EXERCISE  XXI 
Problems 

1.  Suppose,  through  a gradual  sinking  of  the  ocean  bottom,  the  ocean 
basins  were  to  become  considerably  deeper  than  they  are  now,  what  change 
would  this  make  in  the  area  of  the  continents?  Name  parts  of  certain  con- 
tinents which  would  show  the  change  most. 

2.  Rivers  carry  more  lime  carbonate  to  the  sea  than  they  do  salt,  yet 
there  is  far  more  salt  in  the  sea  water  than  there  is  lime  carbonate.  Account 
for  this. 

3.  Ports  on  the  east  coast  of  North  America  and  of  Asia  are  closed  by  ice 
when  more  northerly  ports  on  the  west  side  of  North  America  and  of  Europe 
are  open  all  the  year.  How  do  you  explain  this? 

4.  If  a cubic  foot  of  sea  water  weighs  64  pounds,  what  is  the  pressure  on 
a square  foot  of  ocean  bottom  at  a depth  of  5 miles  ? 

5.  Why  is  most  of  the  fishing  in  the  sea  confined  to,  the  so-called  “banks” 
or  to  other  shallow  waters? 

6.  Why  are  waves  on  the  ocean  larger  than  those  on  lakes? 

7.  What  are  (a)  white  caps  and  (6)  breakers?  What  causes  them? 

8.  Suppose  the  earth  rotated  on  its  axis  from  east  to  west ; describe  the 
probable  movement  of  ocean  currents  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 

9.  Suppose  the  Caribbean  Sea  were  connected  with  the  Pacific  at  Pan- 
ama by  a strait  100  miles  or  more  wide.  Point  out  any  effect  that  this 
might  have  upon  the  climate  of  Europe. 

10.  The  prevailing  winds  are  believed  to  be  the  main  cause  of  the  ocean 
currents,  yet  no  such  wind  accounts  for  the  Labrador  Current.  How  do 
you  explain  this  current? 

11.  Both  fogs  and  icebergs  are  more  common  near  Newfoundland  than 
elsewhere  along  the.  North  Atlantic  steamship  routes.  Explain  why. 

12.  The  winds  blowing  from  the  Pacific  are  of  much  less  importance  to 
North  America  than  those  from  the  Atlantic  are  to  Europe.  Account  for  this. 

13.  Why  do  ship  captains  need  to  know  the  time  and  height  of  tides  in 
harbors  which  they  visit? 

14.  Suppose  the  earth’s  surface  were  half  land  and  half  water,  thus  dou- 
bling the  present  amount  of  land ; would  this  necessarily  mean  that  the  world 
could  support  twice  as  many  people  as  it  can  now?  Explain. 

15.  Give  reasons  why  long-distance  transportation  on  the  ocean  is  cheaper 
than  on  land. 

16.  Why  are  nations  that  are  separated  by  the  ocean  less  likely  to  get 
into  war  than  nations  whose  territories  touch?  Give  illustrations  from  his- 
tory. 


336 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


17.  If  a hilly  or  mountainous  coast  sinks,  the  resulting  coast  line  is  likely 
to  be  very  irregular.  Explain  why. 

18.  The  Norwegians  have  been  excellent  seamen  for  centuries;  but  the 
Swedes  who  live  in  the  same  peninsula  are  not  especially  given  to  a sea-faring 
life.  Account  for  the  difference. 

19.  Why  are  rising  coasts  likely  to  be  deficient  in  good  harbors  ? 

20.  Maine  has  harbors  equally  as  good  as  New  York  Bay,  but  they  are 
of  far  less  importance  to  overseas  commerce.  Explain  why. 


CHAPTER  XVII 


THE  COAST  AND  COASTAL  ACTIVITIES  OF  THE  UNITED 

STATES 

General  Character.  — The  coast  of  the  United  States  is  highly 
favorable  to  the  needs  of  a commercial  nation : 

(a)  because  of  its  great  length ; 

( b ) because  of  its  many  harbors ; 

(c)  because  it  faces  the  two  principal  oceans. 

Speaking  broadly  the  coast  is  of  three  types : 

1.  the  drowned  and  much  indented  coast  of  New  England ; 

2.  the  coastal-plain  shore  of  the  middle  and  southern  states; 

3.  the  mountain  coast  of  the  Pacific. 

1.  From  eastern  Maine  to  New  York  Bay  the  coast  has  sunk 
so  much  that  the  sea  entirely  covers  the  coastal  plain,  and  backs 
up  into  the  valleys  of  all  the  streams  flowing  into  the  sea.  Since 
this  downward  movement  of  the  coast  occurred,  a lesser  upward 
movement  has  taken  place. 

2.  From  New  York  southward  around  Florida  and  on  beyond  the 
mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande,  extends  a coastal  plain ; here  the  sea 
meets  the  land  along  a low,  flat  shore,  with  the  characteristic 
features  of  a rising  coast.  Since  the  general  uplift  of  the  coastal 
plain,  a slight  sinking  has  occurred,  changing  the  river  mouths 
into  broad  but  not  deep  estuaries  and  bays,  of  which  Delaware 
and  Chesapeake  bays  are  examples. 

3.  The  Pacific  coast  has  practically  no  coastal  plain,  and  the 
mountain  ranges,  which  are  very  close  to  the  sea,  are  broken  by 
only  three  or  four  openings  which  make  harbors  suitable  for 
ocean  commerce. 


337 


338 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


The  Atlantic  Coast 

Favorable  Features.  — 1.  The  Atlantic  coast  is  a much  in- 
dented, many-harbored  coast,  especially  from  Virginia  northward. 

2.  It  is  bordered  by  lowlands,  in  part  suited  to  agriculture  and 


Fig.  235.  — A part  of  the  coast  of  Maine,  showing  the  effect  upon  the  coast  line 
produced  by  the  sinking  of  a rugged  coast. 

affording  ample  space  for  manufacturing  centers,  railways,  and 
commercial  cities. 

3.  The  mountains  (the  Appalachians)  which  lie  between  the 
coast  and  the  interior  are  easily  crossed. 

4.  It  faces  Europe,  the  most  important  of  the  continents. 


COAST  AND  COASTAL  ACTIVITIES 


339 


The  Coast  of  Maine.  —Maine  is  sometimes  called  the  “ Hundred 
Harbor  State.”  The  actual  length  of  the  coast  is  more  than  ten 
times  the  length  measured  in  a direct  line.  The  river  valleys 
which  lead  down  to  the  sea  have  been  scoured  and  deepened  by 


glaciers,  and  a sinking  of  the  land  has  drowned  the  river  mouths, 
causing  the  sea  to  extend  up  the  valleys,  and  leaving  ranges  of 
hills  protruding  into  the  ocean  as  headlands  and  islands  (Fig.  235). 

Maine’s  geographical  position  is  somewhat  isolated,  and  its 
many  harbors,  of  which  Portland  is  the  most  important,  are  less 


340 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


used  commercially  than  they  would  he  if  they  were  farther  south. 
In  the  days  of  wooden  ships  the  coast  of  Maine  was  famous  for 
shipbuilding,  and  several  ports,  Bath  in  particular,  still  have  im- 
portant shipyards.  A coast  like  that  of  Maine  develops  in  its 

people  a fondness  for  the 
sea,  for  ships,  and  for 
the  seaman’s  life.  Some 
7000  fishermen  still  go 
out  from  the  fishing 
villages  and  ports  of 
Maine,  and  the  annual 
catch  reaches  millions 
of  pounds. 

The  wild  beauty  of 
the  Maine  coast,  its  cool 
summers,  its  green 
islands  and  blue  waters, 

Fig.  237. -Map  showing  the  drowned  month  attra,Ct  , ^OUSands  of 
of  the  Hudson  River.  The  contour  lines  show  people  who  go  there  for 
the  submerged  channel  across  the  continental  health  rest  and  oleas- 

ure.  The  coast  of 
Maine  has  become  one  of  the  nation’s  summer  play- 
grounds. 

Boston  Harbor,  the  drowned  mouth  of  the  Charles  River, 
is  protected  by  islands  at  the  harbor  entrance  (Fig.  236).  The 
outer  and  the  inner  harbors  together  cover  a large  area,  and  have 
improved  channels  deep  enough  for  the  largest  ocean  liners. 
The  total  water  front  is  141  miles  in  length,  but  it  is  not  all  used. 
Boston  ranks  fourth  among  the  great  ports  of  the  United  States ; 
in  normal  times  over  40  steamship  lines  connect  it  with  foreign 
countries,  and  there  are  many  lines  of  steamers  engaged  in  the 
coastwise  trade.  Enormous  quantities  of  coal  are  brought  by 
water  to  Boston  both  for  use  in  the  city  and  for  distribution  to  the 
manufacturing  cities  tributary  to  it.  Eastern  Massachusetts  is 
sprinkled  with  manufacturing  cities,  in  which  cotton  and  woolen 
mills  and  shoe  factories  are  of  first  importance;  hence  Boston 


COAST  AND  COASTAL  ACTIVITIES 


341 


Fig.  238.  — Gloucester,  Mass.,  one  of  the  most  famous  fishing  towns  of  New  England.  ({/.  S.  Bur.  of  Fisheries .) 


342 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


is  a leading  city  in  the  importation  of  hides,  skins,  wool,  and 
foreign-grown  cotton. 

The  Coast  of  Southern  New  England  has  sunk  less  and  is  less 
indented  than  that  of  Maine,  but  this,  too,  is  a region  of  hills 
and  valleys  and  the  sinking  has  converted  the  river  mouths 


into  harbors.  The  coastal  plain  is  nearly  all  submerged,  hut  ap- 
pears in  places,  as  in  Cape  Cod  Peninsula,  Nantucket,  Martha’s 
Vineyard,  and  Long  Island. 

Narragansett  Bay  reaches  entirely  across  one  portion  of  Rhode 
Island,  cutting  the  little  state  in  two  and  giving  Massachusetts 
a seaport,  Fall  River,  on  one  of  its  arms.  At  the  entrance  to 
the  Bay  is  Newport,  a very  fashionable  and  exclusive  summer 


COAST  AND  COASTAL  ACTIVITIES 


343 


resort  and  the  seat  of  the  United  States  Naval  War  College. 
On  Providence  River,  at  the  head  of  the  bay,  is  Providence, 
which  is  more  largely  devoted  to  manufacturing  than  to  ocean 
commerce.  Near  one  end  of  the  recently  completed  Cape  Cod 
Canal  is  the  famous  old  whaling  port  of  New  Bedford,  now  a 
great  cotton-manufacturing  center. 

Long  Island,  Manhattan  Island,  and  Staten  Island  were  for- 
merly parts  of  the  mainland,  from  which  they  have  been  separated 
by  the  sinking  of  the  land.  The  same  sinking  of  the  coast  gave 
Connecticut  its  much  indented  shore  line  and  many  harbors, 
large  and  small.  On  these  harbors  have  sprung  up  a line  of  man- 
ufacturing cities  including  New  Haven,  New  London,  and  Bridge- 
port, all  of  which  get  coal  by  water  from  ports  in  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  Virginia. 

The  New  England  Fisheries 

Why  Our  Ocean  Fisheries  Are  Important.  — There  are  two 
reasons  why  the  fisheries  of  the  United  States  are  important : 
(1)  they  supply  us  with  a valuable  kind  of  food;  (2)  the  ocean 
fisheries  are  a school  for  seamen.  Men  in  the  fishing  fleets  often 
become  expert  sailors  and  many  of  them  become  the  officers  and 
seamen  of  our  merchant  vessels  and  ships  of  war.  Up  to  the 
time  of  the  Civil  War  the  United  States  was  one  of  the  leading 
nations  in  the  building  of  ships  and  in  the  ocean-carrying  trade, 
and  since  the  World  War  it  has  again  become  a great  maritime 
power.  The  New  England  boat  builders  turned  out  sailing  ves- 
sels of  the  swiftest  type,  and  the  New  England  fisheries  devel- 
oped a race  of  seamen  as  expert  and  fearless  as  any  in  the 
world.  The  American  “Clipper”  and  the  Yankee  sailor  were 
known  in  every  port.  New  Bedford  was  once  famous  for  its  whal- 
ing fleet  and  Gloucester  is  still  widely  known  for  its  fishing  fleet 
which  goes  annually  to  the  banks  off  Newfoundland  and  Nova 
Scotia  (Fig.  226).  Of  the  New  England  fishermen,  the  late 
Professor  Ralph  S.  Tarr,  who  grew  up  among  the  fisher  folk  of 
Gloucester,  wrote : 


344 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


“Such  contact  with  the  sea  develops  bravery;  nay,  it  demands  bravery 
first  of  all  and  then  develops  it  still  further.  The  life  of  the  fisherman  who 
spends  his  days  in  an  open  boat  on  the  heaving  sea,  which  may  at  any  mo- 
ment be  lashed  by  the  fury  of  the  storm  wind,  is  such  as  to  demand  not 
merely  braveness,  but  hardiness,  quickness  to  see,  and  in  an  emergency,  ability 
to  judge  and  act  with  utmost  coolness  and  fearlessness.  The  life  of  the  fish- 
erman is  also  calculated  to  develop  a spirit  of  independence;  he  must  also 
be  patient  and  persistent.  We  will  never  know  to  what  extent  the  develop- 
ment of  these  qualities  among  New  Englanders  and  later  transplanted 
in  other  parts  of  the  country,  is  to  be  credited  to  the  influence  of  the  early 
life  by  the  seashore ; but  for  my  own  part,  I believe  this  influence  has  been 
great.  . . . 

“ The  summer  fishing  for  mackerel  is  pleasant,  the  boats  cruising  near 
the  coast  in  the  exciting  search  for  schools  of  mackerel  which,  when  sighted, 
are  chased  with  large  seine  boats  and  then  surrounded  with  the  seine  and 
taken  aboard,  either  to  be  salted  in  barrels  or  to  be  quickly  taken  to  the  mar- 
ket and  sold  fresh.  The  winter  fishing  presents  an  abundance  of  excitement 
and  danger.  The  fishing  banks  are  notoriously  stormy  and  foggy,  and  often 
the  boats  are  so  densely  wrapped  in  the  fog  that  objects  only  a few  feet  away 
cannot  be  seen.  Then  they  are  in  danger  of  collision  with  icebergs  and  with 
ocean  steamers,  whose  path  lies  directly  across  the  fishing  banks.  It  is  by 
no  means  uncommon  for  a fishing  schooner  to  go  to  the  bottom  with  all  hands, 
crushed  like  an  eggshell  beneath  the  bows  of  a huge  transatlantic  liner.  ” 1 

New  York  Harbor.  — New  York  has  become  the  world’s  leading 
seaport  (Fig.  239).  The  bay  is  the  drowned  mouth  of  the  Hud- 
son River,  and  is  one  of  the  best  protected  and  most  spacious 
among  the  great  harbors  of  the  world.  The  upper  bay  is  almost 
entirely  landlocked.  It  has  mile  after  mile  of  water  front  on 
both  sides  of  Manhattan  Island,  around  the  western  end  of  Long 
Island,  and  along  the  New  Jersey  side  — 748  miles  in  all.  Pro- 
jecting out  from  the  land,  like  the  teeth  of  a great  comb,  are  some 
800  piers  and  wharves,  at  which  may  lie  the  ocean  liners,  the  huge 
freighters,  and  the  vessels  engaged  in  the  coastwise  trade  (Fig.  239). 

Along  the  New  Jersey  shore  are  the  terminals  of  many  railway 
systems  which  focus  upon  this  port  from  the  south,  west,  and  north. 
Into  these  railway  terminals  roll  the  trains  bringing  the  grain, 
meat,  milk,  fruit,  cotton,  lumber,  coal,  and  every  other  commod- 
ity and  every  form  of  merchandise  which  the  country  is  produc- 
ing. The  passenger,  express,  and  mail  trains  which  rumble  in 

1 “ The  Fishing  Industry  of  New  England,”  Bulletin  of  the  American  Bureau  of 
Geography,  Vol.  II,  p-  44. 


COAST  AND  COASTAL  ACTIVITIES 


345 


and  out  of  these  terminals  are  so  numerous,  especially  at  morn- 
ing and  evening,  that  they  are  like  a procession. 

Tens  of  thousands  of  people  live  in  New  Jersey  but  go  to  their 
business  in  New  York  daily.  Until  a few  years  ago  all  passengers 
for  New  York  from  the  south  and  west,  except  those  who  came 
by  the  New  York  Central  Railroad,  had  to  get  off  the  trains  on 
the  New  Jersey  side  and  be  transferred  across  the  Hudson  River 
to  New  York  on  ferry  boats.  Now  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad 
enters  New  York  by  tunnels  under  the  Hudson  River  and  dis- 
charges passengers  at  its  mammoth  station  in  the  very  heart  of  the 
city.  Other  tunnels  also  lead  under  the  Hudson  between  Man- 
hattan and  New7  Jersey,  and  between  Manhattan  and  Brooklyn 
on  Long  Island.  Four  bridges,  each  a mile  or  more  in  length, 
connect  the  Manhattan  and  Brooklyn  portions  of  the  city. 

Scores  of  ferry  boats  pass  to  and  fro  day  and  night  carrying 
people  and  vehicles  from  one  point  to  another.  There  are  so 
many  ocean  steamers,  schooners,  car  ferries,  passenger  ferries, 
tugs,  barges,  lighters,  pleasure  boats,  river  craft,  and  harbor  craft 
crossing,  entering,  and  leaving  the  harbor  that  only  an  estab- 
lished system  of  signals  prevents  collisions.  There  are,  for  ex- 
ample, 10,000  lighters,  or  boats,  which  transfer  freight  cars  from 
place  to  place  along  the  water  front. 

The  Equipment  of  a Great  Port  of  Entry.  — A great  harbor 
requires  many  facilities  for  carrying  on  its  operations.  There 
are  harbor  lights  that  are  watched  and  tended ; a customhouse 
through  which  imported  goods  pass  and  pay  duty ; an  immigrant 
station  with  officials,  interpreters,  inspectors,  physicians,  hos- 
pitals, quarantine  station,  and  all  the  other  facilities  for  register- 
ing, inspecting,  and  passing  thousands  of  immigrants  every  month. 
There  are  police  boats,  fire  boats,  and  revenue  cutters ; powerful 
dredges  are  always  at  work  keeping  channels  open  in  places 
where  the  river  deposits  silt.  There  are  fortifications  with  their 
huge  guns  and  their  quarters  for  soldiers  and  officers ; drydocks 
where  ships  may  be  repaired,  elevators  for  handling  grain,  and 
piers  equipped  with  hoisting  machinery  for  loading  and  unload- 
ing vessels.  There  are  acres  of  train  sheds,  freight  yards,  and 


346 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


stock  yards,  warehouses,  cold  storage  plants,  and  offices  of  the 
commission  merchants,  and  of  other  dealers  and  brokers.  Yet  all 
of  these  form  only  a part  of  the  equipment  of  a great  port. 

The  New  Jersey  Coast.  — The  coast  of  New  Jersey  between 


Fig.  240.  — The  sandy  beach  at  Atlantic  City,  N.  J.  ( Physiography  Lab.  Cornell 

Univ.) 

Raritan  Bay  (near  New  York  Bay)  and  Philadelphia  has  little 
commerce  because  the  shore  is  low  and  sandy  without  a deep  har- 
bor or  a commercial  city.  But  this  very  condition  and  the  absence 
of  commercial  activity  makes  it  an  ideal  coast  for  summer  cot- 
tages, homes,  and  hotels,  and  for  pleasure  seekers  from  the  great 
cities  near  by.  hliles  and  miles  of  the  coast  are  built  up  with  sum- 
mer homes,  many  of  them  palatial  in  character.  In  a few  hours’ 
automobile  ride  along  the  ocean  boulevard  you  pass  through  a 
half  dozen  cities  which  include,  in  addition  to  the  homes  of  the 
permanent  residents,  hotels,  clubs,  summer  cottages,  amusement 
places,  and  bazaars.  The  beach  is  white  and  sandy  and  as  soft  as 
velvet ; the  water  is  not  deep  and  the  huge  waves,  rolling  in,  make 
surf-bathing  a delight  (Fig.  240).  Atlantic  City  is  said  to 
surpass  any  similar  city  in  the  world  in  the  number  and  palatial 
character  of  its  hotels.  There  are  other  stretches  of  coast,  not 
yet  given  over  to  cottagers  and  summer  visitors,  where  quaint 


COAST  AND  COASTAL  ACTIVITIES 


347 


fishing  towns,  quite  unlike  the  fashionable  resorts,  still  re- 
main. 

Delaware  Bay  and  the  Port  of  Philadelphia. — South  of  New 
York  Bay  the  first  harbor  of  commercial  importance  is  the  estuary 


Fig.  241.  — Steel  steamship  under  construction  in  a Philadelphia  shipyard.  When 
ships  were  made  of  wood,  Maine  was  our  leading  shipbuilding  state.  With  the 
change  to  steel,  the  centers  of  this  industry  moved  to  the  Delaware-Chesapeake 
region.  ( Courtesy  Cramp  Shipbuilding  Co.) 


Joseph  it  mint) 


of  the  Delaware  River.  At  the  head  of  ocean  navigation  on  this 
river  is  Philadelphia,  the  third  city  in  size  in  the  United  States, 
with  37  miles  of  water  front.  Philadelphia  is  one  of  the  natural 
outlets  for  coal  from  the  anthracite  fields  of  eastern  Pennsylvania, 
for  the  products  of  the  great  steel-making  centers  and  for  the  oil 
fields  of  Pennsylvania  and  the  interior.  It  is  connected  with 
foreign  ports  by  over  30  lines  of  steamships,  and  with  American 
ports  by  some  15  or  20  lines.  It  is  one  of  the  chief  commercial, 
mercantile,  and  manufacturing  cities  of  the  nation.  Opposite 
Philadelphia  is  Camden  on  the  New  Jersey  side  of  the  Delaware  and 


348 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


a little  farther  south  is  Wilmington,  the  chief  city  of  Delaware.  A 
canal  built  a century  ago  and  soon  to  be  enlarged,  joins  Delaware 
and  Chesapeake  bays.  These  bays  are  the  nearest  coastal  waters 
to  the  principal  iron-  and  steel-making  centers,  and  have  the 


Fig.  242.  — A portion  of  the  oyster  fleet  of  Baltimore  in  former  years.  Sailing 
boats  are  less  in  use  at  present.  ( U . S.  Bur.  of  Fisheries.) 


largest  shipbuilding  yards  in  the  United  States  (Fig.  241).  When 
wood  gave  place  to  iron  and  steel  in  the  building  of  ships,  the  indus- 
try declined  in  New  England  and  increased  along  the  middle  At- 
lantic coast  because  it  is  nearer  the  coal  and  iron  regions.  During 


COAST  AND  COASTAL  ACTIVITIES 


349 


the  World  War  the  Delaware  became  the  foremost  shipbuilding 
river  in  the  world,  surpassing  even  the  famous  Clyde  in  Scotland. 

Chesapeake  Bay  is  the  drowned  mouth  of  the  Susquehanna 
River,  to  which  the  Potomac  and  James  were  once  tributaries 
(Fig.  243).  This  bay  with  its  many 
branches  is  important  commercially, 
and  in  addition  contains  the  most 
productive  oyster  beds  in  the  world. 

Baltimore,  the  most  southerly  of 
our  four  leading  Atlantic  ports,  Nor- 
folk and  Newport  News,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  James,  and  Washington 
and  Richmond,  reached  by  river 
steamers,  combine  to  make  this  an 
important  stretch  of  coast.  Several 
railways,  reaching  back  into  the  coal 
fields,  terminate  here  and  make  these 
ports  especially  important  coal-ship- 
ping  points. 

The  South  Atlantic  Coast.  — South 
of  Chesapeake  Bay  the  coast  be- 
comes less  indented.  Much  of  the 
way  it  is  skirted  with  long,  slender 
islands  of  sand,  built  up  by  the 
waves  and  the  wind  (Fig.  244). 

Nearly  all  of  the  river  mouths  are 
slightly  drowned  and  afford  useful 
though  not  deep  harbors  as  Wilmington,  N.  C.,  Charleston,  S.  C., 
Savannah,  Ga.,  and  Jacksonville,  Fla.  The  export  of  cotton 
from  some  of  these  ports  is  very  large,  notably  from  Savan- 
nah. The  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal  has  led  to  unusual 
activity  along  this  coast,  including  deepening  of  harbors,  building 
of  railway  terminals  and  wharves,  and  improvement  of  rail- 
way facilities  between  the  coal  fields  and  the  sea  board.  The 
“ Great  Circle  Route,”  the  shortest  water  route  between  the 
Panama  Canal  and  western  Europe,  lies  near  this  coast,  and 


rivers  that  formed  this  branch- 
ing, submerged  valley. 


350 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


the  South  Atlantic  ports  should  profit  largely  by  the  opening 
of  the  canal. 

Sea-island  Cotton.  — The  coast  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia 
is  fringed  with  small  islands  ; upon  these  and  to  a much  greater  ex- 
tent on  the  mainland 
of  Georgia  and  north- 
ern Florida  grows  the 
valuable  sea-island 
cotton  , a variety  highly 
prized  because  of  the 
long,  fine,  strong  fiber 
which  it  yields. 

The  Florida  Coast  is 
the  longest  sea  coast 
(1000  miles)  possessed 
by  any  state,  yet  it 
has  no  deep  harbors 
on  the  Atlantic  side 
and  only  two  or  three 
on  the  Gulf  coast. 
The  peninsula  itself  is 

low  and  nearly  flat, 
Fig.  244. - Shore  of  North  Carolina  showing  the  long,  t]  buj,t  ()f 

narrow  orr-shore  bars  which  are  common  along  our  1 ^ 1 # 

south  Atlantic  and  Gulf  coasts.  coral  and  other  kinds 

of  limestone.  Long, 

narrow  sand  bars  lie  parallel  to  almost  the  entire  east  coast. 
At  the  south,  a line  of  coral  reefs,  called  keys,  form  a chain  of 
islands  nearly  200  miles  long  (Fig.  246).  One  of  the  most 
notable  railroad  undertakings  of  recent  years  was  the  building 
of  the  Florida  East  Coast  Railroad,  whose  southern  section 
runs  from  island  to  island  on  concrete  arches  all  the  way  to  Key 
West,  the  most  southerly  city  in  the  United  States.  This  trip 
of  100  miles  on  the  keys  is  described  as  “an  ocean  trip  by  rail- 
road ” (Fig.  247). 

Sponge  Fishing.  — The  sponges  with  which  we  are  familiar  are 
the  skeletons  of  colonies  of  once  living  creatures.  At  the  south- 


COAST  AND  COASTAL  ACTIVITIES 


351 


ern  end  of  Florida,  sponge  fishing  is  carried  on  both  by  divers  and 
by  fishermen  using  long-handled  spears  or  hooks.  This  industry 
is  rather  more  interesting  than  important,  yet  about  2000  per- 


Fig.  245.  — Lumber  dock  at  Savannah,  Ga.  Southern  yellow  pine  constitutes 
over  one- third  of  the  total  lumber  cut  of  the  United  States.  (U.  S.  Forest 
Service.) 

sons  are  engaged  in  it,  and  they  market  several  hundred  thousand 
pounds  of  sponges  each  year. 

The  Gulf  Coast 

From  Florida  to  the  Mexican  border,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is 
bordered  by  a low  coastal  plain  with  all  the  characteristics  be- 
longing to  a rising  coast.  That,  of  course,  means  that  there  are 
few  good  harbors,  and  these  require  frequent  dredging  to  keep 
them  open.  Tampa  and  Pensacola,  Fla.,  and  Mobile,  Ala.,  are 
on  large  well-protected  bays,  and  have  a considerable  commerce. 

Florida  is  one  of  the  large  producers  of  lumber  and  of  naval 
stores,  which  form  the  bulk  of  Pensacola’s  exports.  Mobile  is  a 
cotton-shipping  and  lumber-shipping  port  and  is  becoming  an 


352 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  246.  — The  Florida  East  Coast  Railroad  running  about  100  miles  on  the  keys 

to  Key  West. 


Fig.  247.  • — Concrete  viaduct  of  the  Florida  East  Coast  Railroad,  which  runs  for 
about  100  miles  from  key  to  key,  terminating  at  Key  West — "an  ocean  trip  by 
railroad."  ( Courtesy  F.  E.  C.  R.  R.) 


COAST  AND  COASTAL  ACTIVITIES 


353 


outlet  for  the  rapidly  growing  coal  and  steel  district  around 
Birmingham,  Ala. 

The  Delta  of  the  Mississippi. — A long  time  ago  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico reached  northward  to  the  present  mouth  of  the  Ohio  River, 
but  this  arm  of  the  Gulf  is  now 
filled  by  the  sediment  poured 
into  it  by  the  rivers.  The 
Mississippi  is  carrying  its  load 
of  sediment  out  into  the  main 
gulf,  each  year  depositing  an 
amount  twice  as  great  as  all 
the  rock  and  earth  removed 
from  the  Panama  Canal.  As 
shown  in  Fig.  24S,  the  Missis- 
sippi discharges  through  sev- 
eral mouths  called  “ passes  ” ; 
these  become  partially  filled 
with  sediment  that  obstructs 
navigation.  About  90  miles 
up  the  river  is  the  city  of 
New  Orleans,  and  it  is  essen- 
tial that  the  river  be  kept 
open  for  seagoing  vessels  at 
least  for  that  distance.  This 
has  been  achieved  by  building  “ jetties  ” or  walls  of  earth  and  rock 
on  each  side  of  the  river  at  certain  of  its  mouths.  These  con- 
fine its  course  to  a narrower  channel,  and  compel  it  to  flow  with 
a stronger  current  so  that  it  carries  the  sediment  some  distance 
out  into  the  Gulf,  thus  preventing  the  clogging  of  the  mouth. 
The  delta  is  extending  out  into  the  Gulf  at  the  rate  of  about 
340  feet  a year. 

New  Orleans  and  Galveston.  — New  Orleans  and  Galveston 
hold  the  place  of  leadership  among  the  Gulf  ports.  In  the  value 
of  their  commerce  New  Orleans  leads,  and  both  rank  next  to 
New  York.  These  two  cities  represent  widely  different  types 
of  harbors.  New  Orleans  is  a great  river  port  90  miles  in  from 


Fig.  248.  ■ — - Map  of  the  delta  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi River.  Note  the  growth  since 
1S72. 


354 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


the  coast,  placed  there  on  a natural  levee  because  the  swampy 
delta  of  the  river  forbade  the  building  of  a city  on  the  coast. 
Galveston,  on  the  contrary,  is  built  on  a sandy  island  or  bar 
some  distance  out  from  the  coast  (Fig.  249).  Large  sums  of 


Fig.  249.  — The  location  of  Galveston  on  one  of  the  bars  near  the  Texas  coast. 

Note  that  the  piers  and  docks  are  on  the  sheltered  side  of  the  bar. 

money  have  been  expended  in  perfecting  these  two  harbors.  A 
ship  canal  7 miles  in  length  connects  the  city  of  Houston  with 
Galveston  Harbor. 

The  Pacific  Coast 

Characteristics.  — This  coast  differs  greatly  from  the  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  coasts.  Throughout  almost  its  entire  length  mountains 
rise  from  near  the  water’s  edge.  There  is  practically  no  coastal 
plain,  and  at  only  two  places  has  the  sinking  of  the  land  been 
sufficient  to  admit  the  sea  through  notches  in  the  Coast  Ranges 
so  as  to  produce  spacious  harbors ; these  are  San  Francisco  Bay 
and  Puget  Sound.  The  Columbia  River  has  cut  a channel  to 
the  sea  through  the  mountains,  thus  permitting  ocean  vessels 
to  ascend  to  the  city  of  Portland. 


COAST  AND  COASTAL  ACTIVITIES 


355 


At  almost  the  extreme  southern  end  of  California  is  the  har- 
bor of  San  Diego,  deep,  landlocked,  and  ample  for  a large  com- 
merce. Los  Angeles,  growing  with  great  rapidity,  has  reached 
20  miles  down  to  the  sea  and  has  consolidated  with  the  ports 


Fig.  250.  — Oil  derricks  along  the  coast  of  Southern  California.  ( U . S.  Geol.  Sur.) 

of  San  Pedro  and  Wilmington.  There  is  no  inclosed  natural 
harbor  here,  but  an  artificial  breakwater  gives  protection  to  ship- 
ping. 

The  Harbor  of  San  Francisco.  — A long  time  ago  the  two  riv- 
ers (the  Sacramento  and  the  San  Joaquin)  which  now  drain  the 
Great  Valley  of  California  united  and  flowed  through  the  Coast 
Ranges  in  a notch  which  the  river  itself  had  made.  The  sink- 
ing of  the  coast  afterward  drowned  the  mouth  of  this  river  so 
that  the  sea  now  enters,  and  behind  the  Coast  Ranges  broadens 
out  into  San  Francisco  Bay,  40  miles  in  length  and  deep  enough 
for  the  largest  ships  afloat  (Fig.  251).  The  entrance  to  the 
bay  is  the  celebrated  Golden  Gate.  The  city  of  San  Francisco 


356 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


is  on  a peninsula  between  the  bay  and  the  ocean.  Across  the 
bay,  chiefly  at  Oakland,  are  the  terminals  of  several  trans- 
continental railroads  which  reach  this  harbor.  San  Francisco 
has  long  been  the  chief  port  on  our  Pacific  coast ; the  excel- 
lence of  the  harbor  and  its 
central  position  caused  it  to  be 
made  the  terminus  of  the  first 
transcontinental  railroad.  The 
gold  deposits,  the  rich  lands  of 
the  Great  Valley,  the  lumber, 
and  the  ocean  commerce  have 
all  combined  to  give  this  port 
large  importance. 

Portland,  112  miles  from  the 
sea,  is  reached  by  ocean  vessels 
by  way  of  the  Columbia  and 
Willamette  rivers.  It  is  a 
beautiful  city,  the  natural  out- 
let of  a large  and  productive 
region  tributary  to  the  Co- 
lumbia River  and  its  branches  ; 
this  territory  includes  the  great 
forests  of  western  Oregon  and 
Washington  and  the  wheat 
lands  of  eastern  Washington 
and  Idaho. 

The  Puget  Sound  Ports.  — 

From  the  state  of  Washington 
to  Bering  Strait  stretches  a coast  wholly  unlike  that  of  Oregon, 
California,  and  Mexico.  This  northern  coast  has  experienced 
much  sinking  and  glacial  erosion ; there  are  endless  bays  and  in- 
lets and  a continuous  fringe  of  islands.  The  southernmost  of 
these  indentations  is  Puget  Sound,  the  most  spacious  harbor 
on  our  Pacific  coast.  Seattle  and  Tacoma  are  the  prin- 
cipal ports.  Seattle  is  nearer  the  mouth  of  the  sound  than 
Tacoma;  it  handles  the  larger  part  of  the  ocean  commerce,  and 


Fig.  251.  — Map  of  San  Francisco  Bay 
and  its  cities.  Most  of  the  railroads 
do  not  enter  the  city  directly,  but 
terminate  at  points  across  the  bay 
from  San  Francisco,  and  connect  with 
the  city  by  ferries. 


COAST  AND  COASTAL  ACTIVITIES 


357 


has  had  a marvelously  rapid  growth.  Seattle  is  the  western  ter- 
minus of  several  of  the  great  western  railway  systems,  and  is  also 
an  important  steamship  terminal  for  both  Alaskan  and  Asiatic 
lines. 

The  Salmon  Fisheries  on  the  Pacific  Coast.  — The  Pacific 
salmon  are  the  most  valuable  fish  of  the  western  hemisphere, 
and  with  the  single 
exception  of  the  sea 
herring,  are  commer- 
cially the  leading  fish 
of  the  world.  There 
are  different  species, 
the  largest  of  which 
is  the  king  salmon, 
averaging  25  pounds 
in  weight,  and  some- 
times reaching  100 
pounds.  The  red  sal- 
mon does  not  grow  so 
large,  but  the  rich 
color  of  the  meat 
makes  it  a favorite  for 
canning.  The  catch- 
ing and  canning  of 
salmon  has  become  a 
large  industry  on  the  Pacific  coast  from  San  Francisco  to  Bering 
Strait.  The  canning  season  extends  throughout  the  summer 
and  early  fall  and  engages  upwards  of  35,000  people.  From 
400  to  500  million  pounds  of  fish  are  caught  annually.  If  the 
cans  of  salmon  which  are  put  up  in  an  average  year  on  our  Pa- 
cific coast  were  placed  end  to  end,  they  would  encircle  the  earth 
at  the  equator. 

Peculiarities  of  the  Salmon.  — After  the  young  salmon  hatch  from  eggs 
deposited  far  up  a river  by  the  mother,  they  go  down  the  river  and  out  to  sea, 
where  they  live  as  salt  water  fish.  When  they  reach  maturity,  in  from  two 
to  four  years,  they  seek  the  mouths  of  streams  flowing  into  the  ocean.  So 


Fig.  252.  — Log  raft  on  the  Oregon  coast.  Our 
north  Pacific  coast,  with  its  heavy  rainfall,  has 
magnificent  forests,  but  the  coast  south  of  San 
Francisco  has  very  little  timber.  ( U . S.  Geol. 
Sur.) 


358 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


eager  are  they  to  go  far  up  the  rivers  that  they  will  try  time  and  again  to 
leap  up  a waterfall  or  dam,  and  will  often  ascend  falls  of  considerable  height. 
After  they  begin  their  journey  upstream  they  eat  no  food,  and  shortly  after 
depositing  their  eggs  they  die.  The  eggs  hatch  slowly,  depending  upon  the 
temperature  of  the  water;  in  some  cases  the  process  requires  seven  or  eight 

months.  When  a school  of  salmon 
is  proceeding  up  a river  it  is  like  an 
army ; in  one  stream  in  Alaska 
the  United  States  Bureau  of  Fish- 
eries arranged  a device  which  en- 
abled men  to  count  the  fish  as 
they  passed  through  narrow  gates. 
On  one  day  324,000  were  counted 
and  on  another  402,000.  Over 
2,500,000  were  counted  during  that 
run,  which  lasted  through  July  and 
part  of  August. 

Nets  and  seines  are  stretched 
across  parts  of  the  rivers  and  fish- 
wheels  are  constructed  in  shallow 
channels  to  catch  the  fish  as  they 
swim  up  the  stream.  The  govern- 
ment regulates  the  salmon  fisheries 
and  thus  seeks  to  prevent  the 
catching  of  so  many  as  to  dimin- 
ish permanently  the  supply  for 
future  years. 


The  Alaskan  Seal  Fisher- 
ies.— The  value  and  impor- 
tance of  the  fur  seal  may  be 
judged  from  the  fact  that  a 
sealskin  coat  costs  hundreds 
of  dollars.  The  most  im- 
portant herd  of  seals  in  the 
world  lives  in  the  north  Pacific  and  each  season  collects  on  the 
Pribilof  Islands  near  Alaska  (Fig.  255) ; formerly  there  were  • 4 
or  5 million  seals  in  this  herd,  but  the  seal  hunters  reduced  it 
almost  to  the  point  of  extermination.  The  peculiar  habits  of  the 
seal  make  the  animal  an  easy  prey ; the  Alaskan  seals  always  go 
to  the  same  small  islands  during  the  breeding  season.  Strangely 
enough,  they  have  selected  for  their  breeding  place  islands 


Fig.  253.  — Map  of  Puget  Sound. 


COAST  AND  COASTAL  ACTIVITIES 


359 


which  are  from  100  to  200  miles  away  from  the  waters  where 
they  obtain  their  food.  This  compels  the  mother  seals  to  swim 
all  this  distance  to  get  food ; they  make  the  trips  every  five  or 
ten  days,  and  return  faithfully  to  care  for  their  young.  The 


Fig.  254.  — A log  boom  at  one  of  the  great  saw  mills  of  the  Northwest  — at  Ta- 
coma. (U . S.  Forest  Service .) 


seal  hunters,  knowing  this  habit,  found  it  easy  to  kill  them  when 
they  were  swimming  back  and  forth.  Killing  the  seals  has  been 
forbidden  for  a period  of  15  years  by  a treaty  entered  into  by 
Great  Britain,  Russia,  Japan,  and  the  United  States,  and  it  is 
believed  that  the  herd  will  again  grow  to  large  size. 

Suggestion.  — The  author  has  prepared  no  summary  of  this  chapter.  It 
is  suggested  that  the  pupils  prepare  summaries  as  follows  : 

1.  The  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States.  (About  200  words.) 

2.  The  Gulf  coast  of  the  United  States.  (About  100  words.) 

3.  The  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States.  (About  200  words.) 


360 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  255.  — Thousands  of  seals  on  the  Pribilof  Islands,  oS  the  coast  of  Alaska.' 


COAST  AND  COASTAL  ACTIVITIES 


361 


EXERCISE  XXII 

1.  Why  is  the  coast  line  of  the  United  States  especially  well  suited  to 
the  needs  of  a commercial  nation? 

2.  Why  has  New  England  no  coastal  plain? 

3.  Why  is  the  coast  of  Maine  so  irregular? 

4.  Why  has  shipbuilding  declined  in  importance  on  the  New  England 
coast  ? 

5.  Why,  with  its  many  fine  harbors,  has  Maine  no  very  large  cities? 

6.  Why  does  a coast  like  that  of  Maine  develop  a “sea-faring  instinct” 
in  men? 

7.  Why  does  New  England  use  a great  amount  of  coal? 

8.  Why  are  there  many  manufacturing  cities  along  the  New  England 
coast,  but  not  along  the  New  Jersey  coast? 

9.  Why  is  New  York  harbor  an  excellent  one? 

10.  Why  is  the  coast  of  New  Jersey  especially  well  suited  for  pleasure  re- 
sorts ? 

11.  Why  do  the  Delaware  and  Susquehanna  rivers  have  large  bays  at 
their  mouths? 

12.  Why  are  many  shipyards  located  in  the  region  of  Delaware  and  Ches- 
apeake bays? 

13.  Why  is  coal  a particularly  large  item  in  the  shipments  from  middle 
Atlantic  ports? 

14.  Why  are  there  relatively  few  deep  harbors  along  the  south  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  coasts? 

15.  Why  is  the  commerce  of  the  south  Atlantic  ports  smaller  than  that 
of  the  north  Atlantic  ports? 

16.  Why  is  sea-island  cotton  so  called?  Why  is  it  more  valuable  than 
ordinary  cotton? 

17.  Why  does  the  Mississippi  discharge  through  several  mouths?  Why 
are  jetties  needed  at  some  of  these  mouths? 

18.  Why  was  the  city  of  New  Orleans  not  located  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi? 

19.  Why  has  the  Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States  few  indentations? 

20.  Why  is  there  a gap  through  the  mountains  at  the  Golden  Gate? 

21.  Why  is  the  harbor  of  San  Francisco  an  exceptionally  good  one? 

22.  Why  is  the  Puget  Sound  country  likely  to  become  a great  commercial 
region? 

23.  Why  is  the  coast  from  Puget  Sound  to  Alaska  very  irregular? 

24.  Why  are  there  fewer  cities  on  our  Pacific  coast  than  on  our  Atlantic 
coast? 

25.  Why  is  the  character  of  the  coast  line  a matter  of  large  importance 
to  a country  or  a region? 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


THE  FORESTS  AND  FOREST  INDUSTRIES  OF  THE  UNITED 

STATES 

The  Habits  of  Forest  Trees.  — Wherever  soil  and  climate  will 
allow  them  to  grow,  trees  are  nature’s  favored  crop.  Hun- 
dreds of  kinds  of  forest  trees  grow  in  the  United  States  ; there  are, 
for  example,  about  60  species  of  maple,  70  species  of  pine,  and 
300  species  of  oak.  Not  only  do  the  leaf,  wood,  and  shape  of 
every  species  of  tree  differ  from  those  of  every  other,  but  every 
kind  of  tree  has  its  own  peculiarities  and  habits.  During  past 
ages  the  different  species  of  trees  have  acquired  habits  and  abil- 
ities which  enable  them  to  live,  some  under  one  set  of  conditions 
and  some  under  another.  The  kind  of  situation  in  which  a tree 
or  other  plant  ordinarily  grows  is  called  its  habitat.  It  seems  to 
be  nature’s  determination  that  something  shall  live  in  every  pos- 
sible place,  and  since  the  earth  furnishes  an  endless  variety  of 
places,  or  habitats,  an  endless  variety  of  plants  may  exist. 

Adaptation  of  Trees  to  Climate  and  Soil.  — Among  the  forest 
trees,  some  have  learned  to  live  in  a cold  climate  and  some  in  a 
warm ; some  require  wet  soil,  and  others  dry ; some  can  grow  in 
the  shade,  and  others  must  always  have  light  and  space.  For 
example,  the  mangrove  of  Florida  grows  in  the  swamps,  while 
the  rock  oak  grows  on  dry,  barren  ridges ; the  mesquite  is  con- 
tent to  live  in  the  desert  and  the  jack  pine  in  sand  barrens,  but 
the  black  walnut  will  grow  only  in  the  richest  of  soil.  Hemlock 
will  grow  in  the  shade  of  the  white  pine,  but  the  white  pine  will 
not  thrive  in  the  shade  of  the  hemlock  or  of  any  other  tree;  the 
rubber  tree  cannot  live  where  frosts  occur,  but  the  birch  will 
grow  in  the  frigid  zone.  The  variety  known  as  the  canoe  birch 
will  live  year  after  year  in  the  intense  cold  of  the  arctic  and  grow 

362 


FORESTS 


363 


Fig.  256.  — Map  of  the  original  forest  areas  of  the  United  States.  (Data  from  U.  S.  Forest  Service.) 


364 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


to  be  only  4 or  5 inches  tall  in  50  years,  but  in  a warm  climate 
it  will  grow  to  be  a tree  of  100  to  120  feet  in  height. 

The  Battle  Ground  of  the  Forest.  — In  every  forest  a constant 
struggle  is  taking  place  as  the  trees  strive  for  light,  food,  and 
water;  probably  hundreds  of  saplings  perish  for  every  one  that 
grows  to  maturity.  Mr.  Gifford  Pinchot  points  out  also  that,  in 
a way,  trees  cooperate  with  another : 

“The  history  of  the  life  of  a forest  is  a story  of  the  help  and  harm  which 
the  trees  receive  from  one  another.  On  one  side  every  tree  is  engaged  in  a 
relentless  struggle  against  its  neighbors  for  light,  water,  and  food,  — the 
three  things  trees  need  most.  On  the  other  side,  each  tree  is  constantly 
working  with  all  its  neighbors,  even  those  which  stand  at  some  distance,  to 
bring  about  the  best  condition  of  the  soil  and  air  for  the  growth  and  fighting 
power  of  every  other  tree.” 

On  the  whole,  rainfall  is  the  most  important  single  factor  in 
deciding  where  forests  shall  grow  and  what  kind  they  shall  be. 
This  is  strikingly  shown  as  you  cross  the  Cascade  or  Sierra  Ne- 
vada mountains  near  our  Pacific  coast.  On  the  eastern  slope 
there  are  few  forest  trees  and  those  that  do  grow  look  stunted 
and  hungry.  But  as  you  cross  to  the  western  slopes,  where  the 
rainfall  is  heavy,  dense  and  magnificent  forests  cover  the  ground 
(Fig.  209). 

Extent  of  the  Forests  of  the  United  States. — When  white 
men  came  to  the  New  World,  almost  continuous  forests  covered 
the  country  east  of  the  Mississippi  River,  with  the  exception  of 
the  prairies,  and  it  is  not  yet  fully  understood  why  the  prairies 
had  so  few  trees.  According  to  the  United  States  Bureau  of 
Forestry,  “ the  original  forests  of  the  United  States  exceeded  in 
quantity  and  variety  of  timber  the  forests  of  any  other  region  of 
similiar  size  on  the  globe.” 

A large  part  of  the  western  half  of  the  United  States  is  not 
forested  because  it  receives  too  little  rain.  On  the  Pacific  slope, 
however,  in  northern  California,  Washington,  Oregon,  and  Brit- 
ish Columbia,  are  the  largest  trees  and  finest  forests  in  all  North 
America,  for  there  the  rainfall  is  ample  (Fig.  209).  The  Big  Trees 
of  California  are  the  largest  and  oldest  living  things  on  the  earth. 


FORESTS 


365 


You  may  see  in  those  groves  trees  1500  years  old  or  more  (Fig. 
257). 

Our  Five  Great  Forest  Regions.  — The  forests  of  the  United 

States  have  been  grouped  under  five  types  (Fig.  256)  : 

1.  The  Northern  forests,  which  extend  from  Minnesota  east- 


Fig.  257.  — A California  “Fallen  Monarch”  with  a railway  train  drawn  to  the 
same  scale.  (©  Southern  Pacific  Co.) 

ward  to  the  Atlantic.  They  contain  hemlock  and  many  kinds 
of  hardwoods,  but  the  most  valued  tree  was  the  white  pine, 
now  nearly  gone.  Up  to  about  1905  these  forests  were  our 
leading  source  of  lumber.  ? 

2.  The  Central  or  Interior  Hardivood  forests. — A great  deal  of 
the  timber  in  this  region  was  cut  and  burned  merely  to  get  rid 
of  it,  so  that  the  land  might  be  used  for  agriculture. 

3.  The  Southern  forests,  in  which  the  yellow  pine  is  dominant, 
are  now  supplying  more  lumber  than  any  other  part  of  the  coun- 
try (Fig.  259). 


366 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


4.  The  Rocky  Mountain  forests  are  scattered  and  varied,  but 
almost  wholly  coniferous  (cone-bearing),  with  pines  predomi- 
nating. 

5.  In  the  Pacific  forests,  the  stately  Douglas  fir  and  the  cedar 
predominate  (Fig.  209).  Washington  has  been  the  foremost  lum- 
bering state  in  the  Union  since  1905. 

There  are  practically  no  hardwood  forests  in  the  western  half 
of  the  United  States. 

Industries  Which  Depend  upon  the  Forests 

Lumbering. — The  United  States  is  the  foremost  lumber-pro- 
ducing nation,  and  the  value  of  its  lumber  exceeds  1500  millions 
of  dollars  yearly.  There  are  two  main  divisions  of  the  lumber- 
ing and  wood-working  industries,  logging,  which  is  done  in  the 
forest,  and  sawing,  which  is  done  in  the  mills. 

(a)  Logging.  In  the  northern  forests  the  lumbermen  cut 
down  the  trees,  trim  off  the  branches,  and  saw  the  trunk  into 
logs  of  convenient  lengths,  ranging  from  10  to  20  feet  or  more. 
The  following  paragraphs,  though  describing  logging  methods 
in  Wisconsin,  apply  equally  well  to  the  northern  pine  forests  gen- 
erally. These  methods  of  lumbering  are,  however,  largely  out 
of  use ; most  of  the  logs  that  are  now  cut  are  transported  by 
railroads. 

“To-day  the  white  pine  forests  are  scarcely  more  than  a memory;  but 
for  forty  years  lumbering  was  the  dominant  interest  in  the  northern  half  of 
Wisconsin.  Into  the  pineries  every  winter  went  small  armies  of  men.  Down 
its  rivers  every  spring  the  river-men  drove  thousands  upon  thousands  of 
pine  logs.  Along  these  rivers  hundreds  of  sawmills  stood,  and  around  the 
mills  grew  up  the  lumbering  towns,  many  of  them  the  cities  of  to-day. 

“ Naturally  the  trees  near  the  rivers  were  cut  first,  for  the  principal  method 
of  transporting  the  logs  to  the  mills  was  by  floating  them  down  the  rivers. 
At  first  only  the  best  parts  of  the  choice  trees  were  taken.  Each  season  the 
logging  camps  pushed  farther  up  the  streams  and  farther  back  from  the  banks, 
as  the  timber  was  cut  away.  The  logs  were  hauled  by  horses  or  by  logging 
railroads  to  the  rivers,  and  by  thousands  were  piled  on  the  ice  and  along  the 
banks,  awaiting  the  spring  ‘break-up,’  when  the  melting  snow  turned  the 
river  into  a torrent  (Fig.  261).  When  the  break-up  came  and  the  mass  of 
logs  moved,  the  most  exciting  and  dangerous  employment  of  the  lumberman 


FORESTS 


367 


Fig.  258.  — Map  showing  the  number  of  lumber  mills  and  the  relative  production  of  hard  wood  and  soft  wood 
lumber  in  each  state.  ( After  map  by  U . S.  Forest  Service.) 


368 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


began.  To  guide  and  control  this  plunging,  driving,  rolling  avalanche  of 
timber,  and  to  prevent  or  to  break  a jam  called  for  the  coolest  heads,  and 
the  most  alert,  most  daring  men  on  the  river.” 

Logging  methods  differ  widely  in  different  parts  of  the  coun- 
try. For  example,  in  the  rugged  topography  and  dense  forests 
of  Washington  and  Oregon,  where  the  trees  are  of  exceptional 


Fig.  259.  • — Logging  methods  in  the  South  — quite  unlike  those  of  our  northern 
states  and  eastern  Canada. 

size,  stationary  engines  drag  the  logs  by  cables  to  logging  rail- 
ways, by  which  they  are  taken  to  the  mills.  In  the  cypress 
swamps  of  the  South  logways  are  opened  through  the  swamps 
and  the  logs  are  moved  by  floating. 

(b)  The  sawmills  saw  the  logs  into  rough  lumber  of  many 
dimensions ; some  of  the  lumber  is  used  in  this  rough  form  and 
some  is  further  manufactured  into  flooring,  siding,  doors,  sash, 
boxes,  furniture,  wooden  ware,  and  hundreds  of  other  forms  for 
special  uses. 


FORESTS 


369 


Fig.  260.  — A California  redwood  tree  sometimes  made  a trainload  of  logs.  {U . S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


370 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


The  Manufacturing  of  Pulp  and  Paper  from  Wood.  — Most 
grades  of  paper  in  America  are  now  manufactured  from  a pulp 
made  of  wood  fiber.  Spruce  is  preferred  for  this  purpose,  but 
hemlock,  poplar,  and  several  other  woods  are  also  used.  The 
states  that  lead  in  this  industry  are  New  York,  Wisconsin  (Fig. 
262),  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  and  Pennsylvania,  not  only  be- 


Fig.  261.  — In  regions  of  heavy  snow  and  spring  floods,  the  streams  are  often  em- 
ployed to  transport  the  logs  to  the  mills. 

cause  these  states  have  pulp-wood,  but  also  because  they  are 
near  Canada  from  which  it  is  imported.  Moreover,  all  of  these 
states  have  abundant  water  power,  the  chief  power  employed  in 
the  paper  mills ; they  are  also  in  the  section  of  the  country  where 
the  great  printing  and  publishing  centers  are  located. 

The  Use  of  Wood  in  Tanning.  — Tanning  is  the  process  of 
making  hides  and  skins  into  leather,  a process  which  consists 
mainly  in  soaking  the  hides  in  tanks  or  vats  of  tanning  fluids. 
These  tanning  extracts  were  formerly  obtained  from  hemlock 
and  oak  bark ; so  the  earlier  tanneries  were  built  near  the  north- 
ern forests  in  Pennsylvania,  Wisconsin,  and  New  York.  Now 
bark  is  used  much  less ; instead,  chemicals  and  extracts  made 


FORESTS 


371 


from  chestnut  wood  and  from  a South  American  wood,  called 
quebracho,  are  being  used  more  and  more.  The  small  tan- 
neries, once  so  common,  have  disappeared  and  large  ones,  con- 
trolled by  great  cor- 
porations and  located 
in  or  near  large  cities, 
have  replaced  them. 

Other  Forest  Prod- 
ucts.— From  the  pine 
trees  of  the  South 
$25,000,000  worth  of 
turpentine  and  resin 
(together  called  naval 
stores ) are  annually 
made.  The  crude  tur- 
pentine is  obtained  by 
cutting  gashes  in  the 
trunks  of  the  growing 

Fig.  262.  — Location  of  the  pulp  and  paper  mills  trees  and  collectin0'  the 
along  the  lower  Fox  River  in  Wisconsin.  The  . . . ..  . . . 7 

scale  may  be  taken  from  the  small  circle  for  thick  liquid  that  nOWS 
Depere,  which  represents  a daily  production  of  from  the  gashes  (Fig. 
32,000  pounds  of  paper.  Nearly  all  of  the  mills  n,  7777  1 

use  water  power.  (IFfs.  Geol.  Sur.)  2b-l).  V¥  OOd  alcohol  and 

various  chemicals  are 
made  from  waste  wood  by  a process  of  distilling.  Maple  sugar  is 
made  from  the  sap  of  the  maple  tree,  particularly  in  Vermont  and 
New  York.  But  the  chief  item,  next  to  lumber,  among  forest 
products,  is  fire  wood  or  stove  wood,  which  is  cut  from  wood-lots 
on  the  farms  and  is  mainly  used  by  the  farmers  themselves  or  by 
inhabitants  of  near-by  villages.  The  United  States  Forest  Service 
estimates  the  value  of  this  wood  at  the  huge  sum  of  $250,000,000 
a year. 

The  Importance  of  Retaining  Forests  on  Steep  Slopes.  — 

Besides  the  timber  which  they  supply,  forests  perform  valuable 
services  while  they  are  standing.  On  slopes  they  prevent  the 
erosion  of  the  soil.  During  heavy  rains  or  the  melting  of  snows 
the  dense  tangle  of  roots  in  the  soil  acts  like  a sponge  and  holds 


372 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  263.  — Forest  of  long  leaf  pine  from  which  naval  stores  are  produced.  (U . S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


FORESTS 


373 


Fig.  264.  — Thousands  of  barrels  of  resin  on  the  wharf  at  Savannah,  Georgia.  This  city  is  the  chief  naval  stores  mar- 
ket of  the  world.  (17.  S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


374 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


the  water,  in  this  way  checking  the  run-off  and  aiding  in  the  pre- 
vention of  floods.  In  the  mountains  there  are  extensive  tracts 
of  land  which  are  too  steep  and  rocky  to  produce  crops,  and  forests 
are  the  natural  and  proper  growth  on  such  lands.  If  the  forests 


Fig.  265.  — Ruinous  soil-erosion  following  deforestation.  ( U . S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


are  removed,  the  soil  is  quickly  eroded,  and  soon  the  slopes  be- 
come barren  and  useless  (Fig.  265).  The  interests  of  the  nation 
require  that  the  forests  on  these  non-agricultural  lands  shall  not  be 
ruthlessly  stripped  off,  but  that  only  such  trees  as  are  at  their  best 
for  lumber  or  other  purposes  shall  be  cut  from  year  to  year.  Our 
government,  through  its  policy  of  forest  reserves  and  through  the 
encouragement  of  scientific  forestry  is  trying  to  check  the  avoid- 
able waste  of  such  forests  as  it  still  controls.  Most  of  our  forests, 


FORESTS 


375 


however,  have  already  passed  into  the  possession  of  private  indi- 
viduals or  corporations  and  the  methods  of  lumbering  followed  in 
them  cannot  be  controlled  by  the  government. 

The  Waste  of  Timber  and  the  Loss  by  Forest  Fires.  — Tn 
the  logging  operations  of  the  past,  nearly  one-fourth  of  all  the 


Fig.  266.  — Logged-over  lands  in  northern  Wisconsin.  The  rubbish  left  on  the 
ground  easily  catches  fire  and  starts  the  disastrous  forest  fires  which  cause  enor- 
mous losses.  (U.  S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


timber  logged  was  lost  or  wasted  in  the  forest  (Fig.  266).  Of  the 
three-fourths  that  reached  the  mills,  fully  a third  was  wasted  or 
turned  to  small  account.  The  remainder  went  into  building  opera- 
tions or  to  factories  for  further  manufacturing,  where  still  more 
was  lost.  Experts  estimate  that  we  have  been  wasting  five- 
eighths  of  the  tree  and  using  three-eighths.  Some  of  this  loss  was, 
of  course,  unavoidable.  The  present  high  price  of  lumber,  how- 
ever, is  leading  to  greater  care,  and  wastes  are  being  cut  down. 
The  older  methods  used  in  the  turpentine  or  naval  stores  industry 
destroy  in  a few  years  great  numbers  of  fine  trees,  each  of  which 
has  taken  50  or  100  years  to  grow. 


376 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Forest  Fires. — But  tin-  most  appalling  loss  of  all  is  by  the 
dreaded  forest  fires.  The  United  States  has  lost  from  this  one  cause 
nearly  as  much  timber  as  it  has  used.  This  is  a shocking  state- 
ment and  seems  hardly  possible,  but  it  is  supported  by  the  best 
of  authority.  These  losses  still  continue,  but  the  conservation 
movement  has  drawn  the  attention  of  the  public  to  the  avoid- 
able waste  and  a better  state  of  affairs  is  slowly  coming.  The 
United  States  Forest  Service  believes  that  “ by  reasonable  thrift 
we  can  produce  a constant  timber  supply  beyond  our  present  need 
and  with  it  conserve  the  usefulness  of  our  streams  for  irrigation, 
water  supply,  navigation,  and  power,”  and  that  “ under  right 
management  our  forests  will  yield  over  four  times  as  much  as  now.” 

EXERCISE  XXIII 

1.  Originally  about  one-half  of  the  area  of  the  present  United  States  was 
forest  covered.  Where  was  the  largest  unforested  portion?  Why  there? 
(See  Fig.  2.56.) 

2.  One-half  of  these  forests  has  already  been  cut.  Give  two  reasons 
why  they  have  been  so  rapidly  removed. 

3.  There  are  five  great  forest  belts : 

(a)  The  Northern  Belt,  extending  from  Maine  to  Minnesota  and  reach- 
ing south  along  the  Appalachians.  White  pine  was  the  most  valuable  tim- 
ber of  this  belt ; more  than  70  per  cent  of  this  has  been  cut.  Suggest  rea- 
sons why  such  a high  percentage  of  this  timber  has  already  been  removed. 

( b ) The  Southern  Belt,  on  the  coastal  plain  from  New  Jersey  to  Texas. 
Y ellow  pine  predominates ; over  50  per  cent  of  this  has  been  removed.  At 
present  this  belt  is  our  largest  source  of  lumber.  It  is  also  our  chief  source 
of  naval  stores.  What  are  naval  stores?  How  obtained?  For  what  used? 
The  Gulf  states  lead  in  the  production  of  these  stores. 

(c)  The  Central  Hardwood  Belt.  Eighty  per  cent  of  the  timber  has  already 
been  removed ; this  is  the  highest  proportion  in  any  belt.  Can  you  give 
reasons?  What  are  some  of  the  most  useful  hardwoods?  For  what  used? 

( d ) The  Rocky  Mountain  Belt.  This  timber  is  in  scattered  patches  and 
is  largely  a variety  known  as  western  pine ; 75  per  cent  of  the  timber  of  this 
belt  still  remains.  Why  is  so  much  more  left  in  this  belt  than  in  the  first, 
three  mentioned? 

(e)  The  Pacific  Belt  is  most  heavily  wooded  near  the  coast  where  the 
rainfall  is  heaviest ; it  is  nearly  all  soft  wood.  Douglas  fir  predominates ; 
75  per  cent  of  the  timber  is  stdl  left.  The  leading  lumber-producing  state 
is  Washington. 

4.  Every  year  we  take  an  average  of  250  cubic  feet  of  wood  per  capita 
from  our  forests ; France  takes  only  25  cubic  feet.  Why  do  we  use  so  much 
more? 


FORESTS 


377 


5.  Eight  kinds  of  wood  make  up  over  80  per  cent  of  our  forest  products ; 
yellow  pine  leads,  followed  by  Douglas  fir,  oak,  white  pine,  and  hemlock. 
Which  of  the  five  forest  belts  produces  each  of  these? 

6.  Lumbering  is  distributed  widely  over  the  country ; 18  states  produce 
a billion  board-feet  or  more  a year  each.  A board-foot,  is  12  inches  square 
and  one  inch  thick. 

7.  The  annual  value  of  our  forest  products  at  the  place  of  production  is 
from  I7  to  2 billion  dollars,  but  the  lumber  finally  costs  the  consumer  sev- 
eral times  as  much.  This  amount  is  about  12  per  cent  of  the  value  of  our  farm 
products.  Make  a list  of  the  principal  uses  to  which  wood  is  put.  Three- 
fourths  of  the  timber  cut  is  soft  wood.  Can  you  explain  why? 

8.  Our  largest  uncut  forests  are  in  the  Gulf  states  and  the  Pacific  states. 
Explain  why. 

9.  Forty  years  ago  three-fourths  of  our  timber  lands  were  owned  by  the 
nation  or  by  the  states.  Now  four-fifths  are  owned  by  individuals  or  corpo- 
rations. Less  than  a dozen  companies  now  hold  a quarter  of  all  the  privately 
owned  timber  in  the  United  States,  and  200  holders  own  one-half  of  our 
timber  lands.  How  have  private  companies  gained  such  enormous  holdings 
of  timber?  Discuss  the  wisdom  of  our  government  in  permitting  this.  What 
are  the  gains  and  the  losses  to  the  public  ? Remember  that  some  of  our  great 
western  railroads  would  not  have  been  built  until  long  after  they  were,  had 
our  government  not  aided  them  by  these  land-grants. 

10.  From  1875  to  1900  the  Great  Lakes  region  (especially  Michigan  and 
Wisconsin)  was  the  chief  producer  of  lumber.  Why  was  the  lumber  of  this 
region  cut  before  that  in  the  South  and  in  the  Far  West? 

11.  The  chief  products  of  our  forest  industries  are  (a)  lumber  in  many 
forms  for  building  purposes;  (6)  fire  wood;  (c)  wood  pulp  and  paper; 
(d)  furniture ; (e)  tanning  extracts ; (/)  naval  stores.  Mention  some  of  the 
sections  of  the  country  where  each  of  these  industries  is  carried  on. 

12.  The  waste  of  wood  is  enormous.  Point  out  some  of  the  chief  causes 
for  this  waste  and  loss. 

13.  Name  8 to  10  kinds  of  wood  which  are  particularly  well  suited  to 
specific  uses,  e.g.,  for  paper-pulp,  cross-ties,  furniture,  shingles,  flooring, 
packing  boxes,  etc. 

14.  Paper  and  pulp  are  mostly  made  in  the  northern  forest  belt.  Give 
three  reasons.  In  what  states  are  the  leading  paper-making  centers? 


CHAPTER  XIX 


GEOGRAPHICAL  ASPECTS  OF  TRANSPORTATION 

The  Dependence  of  Modem  Life  upon  Transportation.  — 

In  a pioneer  community  the  people  supply  nearly  all  their  own 
wants,  producing  most  of  the  food  that  they  eat,  the  lumber  or 
other  materials  for  their  homes,  the  fuel  that  they  use,  and  even 
the  material  for  their  clothing.  Hundreds  of  such  communities 
still  exist  in  the  mountains  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  Miss 
Ellen  Semple,  writing  in  1901,  has  thus  described  one  of  them: 

“In  one  of  the  most  progressive  and  productive  countries  of  the  world, 
and  in  that  section  of  the  country  which  has  had  its  civilization  and  its  wealth 
longest,  we  find  a large  area  where  the  people  are  still  living  the  frontier  life 
of  the  backwoods,  where  the  civilization  is  that  of  the  eighteenth  century, 
where  the  people  speak  the  English  of  Shakespeare’s  time,  where  the  large 
majority  of  the  inhabitants  have  never  seen  a steamboat  or  a railroad,  where 
money  is  as  scarce  as  in  colonial  days,  and  all  trade  is  barter.  It  is  the  great 
upheaved  mass  of  the  southern  Appalachians  which,  with  the  conserving 
power  of  the  mountains,  has  caused  these  conditions  to  survive,  carrying  a 
bit  of  the  eighteenth  century  intact  over  into  this  strongly  contrasted  twen- 
tieth century.  . . . 

“The  furnishings  of  the  cabins  are  reduced  to  the  merest  necessaries  of 
life,  though  in  the  vicinity  of  the  railroads  or  along  the  main  streams  where 
the  valley  roads  make  transportation  a simpler  problem,  a few  luxuries  like 
an  occasional  piece  of  shop-made  furniture  and  lamp-chimneys  have  crept 
in.  One  cabin  which  we  visited  near  the  foot  of  Pine  Mountain,  though  of 
the  better  sort,  may  be  taken  as  typical.  Almost  everything  it  contained 
was  homemade,  and  only  one  iron-bound  bucket  showed  the  use  of  hardware. 
Both  rooms  contained  two  double  beds.  These  were  made  of  plain  white 
wood,  and  were  roped  across  from  side  to  side  through  auger-holes  to  support  the 
mattresses.  The  lower  one  of  these  was  stuffed  with  corn-shucks,  the  upper 
one  with  feathers  from  the  geese  raised  by  the  housewife.  The  sheets, 
blankets,  and  counterpanes  had  all  been  woven  by  her,  as  also  the  linsey- 
woolsey  from  which  her  own  and  her  children’s  clothes  were  made. 
Gourds,  hung  on  the  walls,  served  as  receptacles  for  salt,  soda,  and  other 
kitchen  supplies.  The  meal-barrel  was  a section  of  a log,  hollowed  out  with 
great  nicety  till  the  wood  was  not  more  than  an  inch  thick.  The  Hour- 
barrel  was  a large  firkin,  the  parts  held  in  place  by  hoops,  fastened  by 

378 


METHODS  OF  TRANSPORTATION 


379 


an  arrowhead  at.  one  end  of  the  withe  slipped  into  a slit  in  the  other;  the 
churn  was  made  in  the  same  way,  and  in  neither  was  there  nail  or  screw. 
The  wash  tub  was  a trough  hollowed  out  of  a log.  A large  basket  was  woven  of 
hickory  slips  by  the  mountaineer  himself,  and  two  smaller  ones  made  of  the 
cane  of  the  broom  corn  and  bound  at  the  edges  with  colored  calico  were  the 
handiwork  of  his  wife.  Only  the  iron  stove  with  its  few  utensils,  and  some 
table  knives,  testified  to  any  connection  with  the  outside  world.  The  old 
flint-lock  gun  and  powder-horn  hanging  from  a rafter  gave  the  finishing  touch 
of  local  color  to  this  typical  pioneer  home.  Daniel  Boone’s  first  cabin  in 
the  Kentucky  wilderness  could  not  have  been  more  primitive.” 1 


In  an  American  city,  or  for  that  matter  in  almost  any  home 
that  has  the  benefits  of  modern  transportation,  things  are  quite 
different.  For  a small  sum  one  may  have  a dinner  brought  to- 
gether from  every  continent : grapefruit  from  Florida ; olives 
from  Spain ; fish  from  the  banks  of  Newfoundland ; bread  from 
wheat  grown  in  Manitoba,  ground  in  Minneapolis,  shipped  in  a 
sack  made  of  Texas  cotton  in  a factory  in  Massachusetts ; beef 
from  a steer  grown  in  Kansas,  fattened  in  Iowa,  and  slaughtered 
in  Chicago,  seasoned  with  salt  from  Michigan  and  pepper  from 
Sumatra;  salad  made  of  bananas  from  Costa  Rica,  grapes  from 
Spain,  walnuts  from  California,  seasoned  with  a dressing  made  of 
mustard  from  Madagascar  and  olive  oil  from  Italy ; coffee  from 
Brazil  with  sugar  from  Cuba,  drunk  from  a cup  made  in  Trenton, 
N.  J.,  stirred  with  a spoon  made  in  Meriden,  Conn.,  from  silver 
mined  in  Mexico.  The  napkin  may  have  been  woven  in  Con- 
necticut, from  linen  made  of  flax  from  Russia.  The  chair  may 
have  been  made  in  Grand  Rapids,  Mich.,  from  oak  grown  in 
Georgia,  seated  with  leather  tanned  in  Boston  from  a goat  skin 
imported  from  Asia.  The  rug  on  the  floor  may  have  been  made 
in  Philadelphia  from  Australian  wool,  colored  with  German  dyes. 
There  is  scarcely  a well-laid  table  or  a well-furnished  room  in  an 
ordinary  home  that  does  not  represent  a list  much  like  the 
above.  Cheap,  rapid  transportation  enables  the  average  Amer- 
ican family  to  enjoy  comforts  and  luxuries  that  even  princes 
did  not  know  in  the  Middle  Ages. 

1 “The  Anglo  Saxons  of  the  Kentucky  Mountains,”  in  The  Bulletin  of  the 
American  Geographical  Society , Vol.  XLII,  pp.  561-594. 


380 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


The  Use  of  Rivers  in  a New  Country.  — It  has  already  been 
pointed  out  (Chap.  VIII)  that  in  a new  country,  where  forests  are 
dense,  the  rivers  are  almost  the  only  routes  for  explorers,  trad- 
ers, and  settlers.  Throughout  the  million  square  miles  of  ter- 
ritory in  Canada  in  which  the  Hudson  Bay  Fur  Company  oper- 
ates, the  hunters,  trappers,  and  all  others  use  the  rivers  and  lakes 
as  routes  of  travel.  In  the  vast  stretches  of  Siberia,  in  the 
Amazon  basin,  and  in  Central  Africa,  the  waterways  are  still 
almost  the  only  highways.  In  China,  Germany,  France,  and, 
to  some  extent,  Russia,  rivers  have  been  joined  by  canals  form- 
ing a network  of  routes  for  boats.  While  the  cost  of  carrying 
merchandise  on  rivers  may  be  low,  this  was  not  always  true.  The 
early  steamboats  from  New  Orleans  to  Louisville  charged  an  av- 
erage of  5 cents  a pound  for  freight  and  $125  for  a passenger. 
Half  rates  were  charged  for  downstream  traffic.  These  prices 
are  many  times  higher  than  the  present  railroad  rates. 

The  Canals  of  the  United  States.  — The  United  States  had 
its  Canal  Period,  but  it  was  so  quickly  followed  by  the  Railroad 
Era  that  canal  transportation  in  this  country  was  really  impor- 
tant for  only  a little  more  than  one  generation.  The  most  impor- 
tant of  these  canals  were  constructed  between  1825  and  1840 
(Fig.  267).  Nearly  a dozen  canals  in  New  York  connected  the 
larger  lakes  and  rivers  with  one  another  or  with  the  Erie  Canal. 
Three  canals,  each  about  50  miles  long,  were  built  in  New  Eng- 
land, but  were  among  the  first  to  be  abandoned.  Two  crossed 
New  Jersey  from  New  York  Bay  to  the  Delaware  River;  one  of 
them  (the  Delaware  and  Raritan)  is  still  in  use.  A large  num- 
ber of  canal  projects  were  carried  out  in  Pennsylvania,  and 
Maryland  and  Virginia  attempted  without  success  to  complete 
water  connection  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Ohio  River. 
Ohio  built  several  canals,  the  principal  ones  being  the  two  that 
joined  Lake  Erie  with  the  Ohio  River.  Indiana  constructed 
a canal  joining  the  Ohio  River  with  an  Ohio  canal  leading  to 
Lake  Erie.  Illinois  connected  Lake  Michigan  with  the  Illinois 
River,  which  flows  into  the  Mississippi,  and  in  Wisconsin  a half- 
successful attempt  was  made  to  build  and  maintain  a waterway 


METHODS  OF  TRANSPORTATION 


381 


between  Lake  Michigan  and  the  Mississippi  River.  Most  of 
these  canals  were  useful  for  a time  and  aided  largely  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  regions  which  they  traversed  ; but  the  majority 


Fig.  267.  ■ — None  of  the  canals  are  used  very  extensively,  and  the  two  canals  in 
Ohio  are  practically  abandoned. 


of  them  did  not  pay,  were  allowed  to  fall  into  disrepair,  and 
have  been  abandoned  or  nearly  so  (Fig.  267). 

The  Erie  Canal.  — The  most  successful  of  all  these  canals 
was  the  Erie  in  New  York,  uniting  Buffalo  on  Lake  Erie  with 
the  Hudson  River  at  Troy  and  thence  with  New  York  City, 
a total  distance  of  425  miles.  The  story  of  this  famous  water- 
way reads  like  a romance.  Nature  had  prepared  the  route ; 
the  sinking  of  the  land  had  converted  the  Hudson  into  a deep, 
navigable  river  with  a spacious  harbor  at  its  mouth.  The  Mo- 
hawk, a branch  of  the  Hudson,  had  cut  a notch  through  the  east- 


382 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


ern  mountains  and  thus  had  prepared  a route  to  the  Ontario 
plain  of  western  New  York,  a plain  so  level  that  it  contains 
stretches  of  the  canal  50  miles  long  without  a lock.  New  York 
was  fortunate  in  possessing  the  only  low  gap  in  our  eastern  moun- 
tains, in  fact  the  only  possible  route  in  the  United  States  for  a 
successful  canal  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  interior  of  the 
country.  No  other  factor  was  so  influential  in  making  New 
York  City  the  metropolis  of  the  nation  as  those  features  of  the 
state’s  topography  which  permitted  the  joining  of  the  Great 
Lakes  to  the  sea,  thus  giving  New  York,  for  a half  century,  the 
principal  east-west  highway  of  the  nation.  The  Erie  Canal  has 
twice  been  enlarged  and  has  recently  been  rebuilt  and  enlarged 
at  an  expense  of  over  $150,000,000. 

Lake  and  River  Transportation  in  the  United  States.  — It 
would  be  well  to  review  at  this  point  the  story  of  the  rise  and 
decline  of  navigation  on  the  Mississippi  River  (page  140),  and 
the  accounts  of  the  remarkable  increase  in  navigation  on  the 
Great  Lakes  (page  147).  It  is  a noteworthy  fact  that  prior  to 
1914  we  had  more  ships  on  these  lakes  than  there  were  American 
ships  on  the  ocean  engaged  in  our  foreign  commerce. 

Valleys  and  Railways.  The  topography  of  the  country 
to  be  traversed  is  one  of  the  most  important  matters  in  select- 
ing railway  routes.  Engineers  search  out  and  survey  these 
routes  with  great  care,  because  the  railroad  must,  if  possible, 
avoid  heavy  grades  and  sharp  curves.  In  a rough  country,  val- 
leys whose  streams  have  graded  their  channels  to  easy  slopes 
are  almost  invariably  selected  for  railways.  The  route . having 
been  selected,  the  construction  of  a railroad  is  largely  a process 
of  grading ; that  is)  cutting  and  filling.  When  the  Pennsylva- 
nia Railroad  was  building,  the  chief  engineer  estimated  that  on 
the  level  stretches  the  road  could  be  built  for  $10,000  a mile, 
on  the  western  slope  of  the  Alleghenies  for  $28,000  a mile,  and  on 
the  very  steep  eastern  slope  for  $50,000  a mile.  A 40-mile  sec- 
tion of  the  road  over  the  Alleghenies  cost  nearly  twice  as  much 
as  a 60-mile  section  along  a river  valley.  Nor  does  the  extra 
cost  end  when  the  road  is  built,  for  every  heavy  train  that  passes 


METHODS  OF  TRANSPORTATION 


383 


Fig.  268.  — Canon  of  the  Grand  River  in  Colorado.  Among  lofty  mountains, 
such  canons  provide  almost  the  only  possible  railway  routes  through  the  moun- 
tain barriers.  ( Courtesy  D.  & R.  G.  R.  R.) 


384 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  269.  ■ Railroad  to  Cripple  Creek,  Colo.  An  example  of  the  difficulties  of  railroad-building  among  mountains. 


METHODS  OF  TRANSPORTATION 


385 


Fig.  270.  — Valley  of  the  New  River  in  the  Allegheny  Plateau,  West  Virginia.  In  a region  of  such  topography,  the 
river  valleys  form  about  the  only  feasible  routes  for  railways.  (U . S.  Geol.  Sur.) 


386 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


over  this  mountain  division  requires  one  or  more  extra  locomo- 
tives, thereby  adding  to  the  cost  of  transportation.  About  every 
important  river  valley  in  the  Appalachians  has  been  taken  pos- 
session of  by  some  railway. 

Mountain  Passes  and  Railways.  — Low  passes  are  of  utmost 
importance  to  railway  builders,  and  the  early  railways  which 


Fig.  271.  — View  on  the  Denver  & Rio  Grande  Railroad  along  Eagle  River,  Col- 
orado, illustrating  the  importance  of  stream  valleys  and  canons  as  railroad 
routes  through  mountains. 

got  possession  of  such  natural  routes  as  the  Mohawk  Valley  in 
New  York,  the  Susquehanna-Juniata  Valley  in  Pennsylvania, 
and  the  Potomac  Valley  between  Maryland  and  Virginia,  have 
become  the  great  trunk  lines  of  the  East.  In  the  western  moun- 
tains the  railroads  that  got  possession  of  the  low  passes  secured 
an  advantage  worth  millions  of  dollars.  A bitter  struggle  oc- 
curred between  two  rival  railroad  companies,  both  of  which  were 


METHODS  OF  TRANSPORTATION 


387 


determined  to  get  control  of  the  Royal  Gorge  of  the  Arkansas 
River  through  the  Front  Range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  (page 
139).  The  passes  in  the  Alps  have  been  important  influences 
in  determining  the  routes  of  several  of  the  main  railroads  of  cen- 


Fig.  272.  — The  Conestoga  wagon  and  the  stagecoach  by  means  of  which  freight 
and  passengers  were  carried  between  Philadelphia  and  Pittsburgh  before  the 
day  of  railroads. 

tral  Europe,  and  the  same  general  principle  holds  true  of  rail- 
road-building in  any  mountainous  region. 

Growth  of  Transport  Facilities  in  the  United  States. — -This 
part  of  our  country’s  history  is  as  fascinating  as  a story;  it 
is  dealt  with  more  fully  in  Chapter  VIII.  The  story  begins 
with  the  Indian  canoe  and  the  French  bateau ; on  the  rivers 
it  is  a story  of  flatboats  laboriously  propelled  by  poles,  of  clumsy 
arks,  of  great  lumber  rafts,  of  keel  boats  that  could  ascend  the 
streams  as  well  as  float  down  them,  of  the  first  crude  steamboats, 
puffing  and  splashing  along,  of  ever  improving  river  steamers, 
until  we  reach  the  period  of  the  “Floating  Palaces”  carrying  their 
gay  parties  between  New  Orleans  and  St.  Louis  before  the  Civil 
War.  On  land  the  story  takes  us  through  the  days  when  long 
trains  of  pack  horses  in  single  file  carried  people  and  goods  along 
narrow  trails  from  Philadelphia  to  Pittsburgh  in  20  days.  It  is 
said  that  in  the  years  around  1780,  as  many  as  500  pack  horses  a 
day  sometimes  passed  through  Carlisle,  Penn.  One  proprietor  at 
Harpers  Ferry  had  200  pack  horses  and  nearly  a hundred  men  em- 
ployed in  carrying  goods  and  passengers.  The  “packers”  vigor- 


388 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


ously  opposed  the  building  of  roads  and  fought  hard  to  prevent 
the  introduction  of  wheeled  vehicles. 

Roads.  — Soon  after  1S00  an  agitation  for  good  roads  began. 
The  great  Cumberland  National  Road,  designed  to  reach  from 


Fig.  273.  — One  of  the  excellent  roads  over  the  Swiss  Alps.  ( Physiography  Lab. 

Cornell  Univ.) 

Cumberland,  hid.,  to  the  Mississippi  River  at  St.  Louis,  was  be- 
gun in  1811  but  was  completed  only  to  Yandalia,  111.  Over  these 
turnpikes  long  trains  of  canvas-covered  wagons  (Fig.  272)  rum- 
bled and  creaked,  their  owners  charging  a hundred  dollars  a ton 
or  higher  for  conveying  goods  between  Philadelphia  and  Pitts- 
burgh. In  those  days  salt  sold  for  $5  a bushel,  and  iron  for 
20  cents  a pound  in  Pittsburgh.  There  was  a still  earlier  period 
when  the  “flying  stagecoaches”  covered  the  distance  from  Boston 
to  New  York  in  5 days  and  made  the  90  miles  from  New  York 
to  Philadelphia  in  3 days.  Even  as  late  as  1S24,  Thurlow  Weed 
wrote  that  it  took  him  6 days  and  7 nights  to  go  by  stagecoaches 
from  Albany  to  Rochester,  N.  Y.,  a distance  of  225  miles. 

The  First  Railroads.  — The  next  improvement  in  roads  con- 
sisted in  laying  wooden  timbers  to  which  strips  of  band  iron  later 
were  nailed.  At  first,  horses  were  used  to  draw  the  cars  ; early  in 


METHODS  OF  TRANSPORTATION 


389 


8ci\V 


390 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


1829,  three  crude  locomo- 
tives were  brought  from 
England.  The  early  lo- 
comotives are  described 
as  being  “so  covered  with 
rods  and  joints  that  they 
resemble  a huge  grass- 
hopper” (Fig.  274).  It 
is  a strange  fact  that  every 
important  step  in  the  im- 
provement of  transporta- 
tion methods  has  been 
opposed  by  people  who 
either  feared  that  their 
own  profits  would  be  en- 
dangered, or  who  glori- 
fied “the  good  old  days.” 
By  these  people  railroads 
and  steamships  were  rid- 
iculed and  their  utter  fail- 
ure was  predicted. 

Extent  of  Railroads  in 
the  United  States. — There 
are  over  260,000  miles  of 
railroads  in  the  United 
States,  more  than  the 
total  railroad  mileage  of 
Europe  and  Asia  com- 
bined, and  40  per  cent  of 
the  mileage  of  the  world. 
There  are  a number  of 
reasons  for  this : the 

United  States  has  a large 
population  and  a large 
area,  yet  China  and  Russia 
are  even  larger.  But  the 


METHODS  OF  TRANSPORTATION 


391 


Fxo  276  — Railroad  map  of  the  United  States. 


392 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


people  of  the  United  States  travel  more  than  any  other  people ; 
they  raise  and  ship  the  greatest  amount  of  farm  produce,  use  the 
most  coal,  steel,  and  lumber,  and  manufacture  the  greatest  amount 
of  goods  of  any  country.  Railroads  are,  of  course,  most  numer- 


jw m*; 


LOS 

ANGETj, 


>ALLA1 


0-ALVtSTON 


Fig.  277. — Railroad  system  formerly  known  as  the  “Harriman  Roads”;  the 
Southern  Pacific,  the  Union  Pacific,  and  subsidiaries. 

ous  in  wealthy  and  progressive  countries ; in  the  United  States 
they  are  most  numerous  in  the  level  farming  section  of  the  Mid- 
dle West,  where  they  form  a perfect  network  (Fig.  276). 

Railroad  Systems  of  the  United  States.  — More  than  two- 


METHODS  OF  TRANSPORTATION 


m 


thirds  of  the  railroad  mileage  of  this  country  is  comprised  in  ten 
great  systems  which  have  been  built  up  or  bought  up  by  men 
united  in  corporations  which  control  vast  wealth.  The  so-called 
Vanderbilt  System  includes  nearly  as  many  miles  of  railway  as 
there  are  in  all  Canada.  At  the  time  of  Mr.  E.  H.  Harriman’s 


& 

TKp’tiuu  ' rr 


>WAHA 


Kansas'""' 

iClTY-^ 


FT  WORT  h 


you s ton 


Fig.  278.  — Railroads  making  up  the  “Hill  Lines”;  the  Great  Northern,  the 
Northern  Pacific,  the  Burlington,  the  Colorado  and  Southern,  and  subsidiaries. 


death  (1909),  the  Harriman  System  (Union  Pacific,  Southern 
Pacific,  and  others)  included  a railway  mileage  greater  than  that 
of  Italy  and  Spain  combined  (Fig.  277).  The  so-called  “Hill 
Roads”  (Northern  Pacific, Great  Northern, Burlington, and  others) 
equal  in  length  those  of  Brazil  (Fig.  278),  and  the  roads  domi- 


394 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


nated  by  the  banking  house  of  J.  P.  Morgan  & Co.  nearly  equal  in 
mileage  all  those  of  Argentina.  So  powerful  did  these  railroad 
corporations  become  that  the  government  found  it  necessary  to 
curb  them  and  to  establish  a degree  of  control  over  them. 

The  Vanderbilt  System,  built  up  around  the  New  York  Cen- 
tral Lines,  serves  the  section  of  country  extending  from  Boston 
and  New  York  through  New  York  State  to  Chicago,  Cincinnati, 
and  St.  Louis. 

The  Pennsylvania  System,  whose  lines  cover  more  than  10,- 
000  miles,  serves  the  region  just  south  of  this  from  New  York 
and  Philadelphia  through  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illi- 
nois to  Chicago  and  St.  Louis  (Fig.  280).  Several  lesser  systems 
also  traverse  this  area  and  the  region  immediately  south  of  it. 
The  Southern  Railway  System  is  the  most  extensive  in  the  South. 
Several  others  serve  the  Mississippi  Valley  in  a generally  north 
and  south  direction,  the  leading  ones  being  the  Louisville  and 
Nashville,  and  the  Illinois  Central.  No  less  than  seven  lines 
connect  the  Mississippi  Valley  with  the  Pacific  coast ; the  Great 
Northern,  Northern  Pacific,  and  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and 
St.  Paul  serve  the  northern  section  and  terminate  on  Puget 
Sound.  The  Union  Pacific  and  the  recently  completed  Western 
Pacific  serve  the  central  belt  and  terminate  at  San  Francisco  Bay. 
Farther  south  are  the  Santa  Fe  and  the  Southern  Pacific  lines 
which  reach  San  Francisco  Bay  after  entering  California  at  the  south. 

During  the  World  War,  the  United  States  Government  took  over 
the  railroads  and  operated  them  as  if  they  formed  a single 
great  system. 

Cost  of  Transporting  Goods  by  Different  Methods.  -By 

comparing  the  cost  of  transporting  goods  by  different  methods, 
the  advantages  of  railroads  and  steamships  are  brought  out. 
In  parts  of  China  coolies  carry  goods  long  distances,  or  wheel 
them  in  wheelbarrows  scores  or  even  hundreds  of  miles.  Camels 
are  used  in  the  desert,  while  the  sure-footed  llamas  are  the  prin- 
cipal pack  animals  of  the  Andes  Mountains.  Dogs  are  used  in 
Alaska,  Greenland,  and  other  parts  of  the  frigid  North ; the  rein- 
deer in  Lapland,  the  yak  in  Tibet,  and  the  burro  in  many  lands. 


METHODS  OF  TRANSPORTATION 


395 


Fig.  279.  — Main-line  railroads  of  the  United  States. 


396 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


In  Siberia  and  Manchuria  grain  is  frequently  hauled  100  miles 
by  horses  drawing  clumsy  wagons.  An  ordinary  camel  can  carry 
300  pounds  25  miles  a day  at  an  average  cost  of  50  cents  a ton 
per  mile  (per  ton-mile).  A two-horse  team  can  haul  2 tons 


Fig.  280.  ■ — Map  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad  System,  one  of  the  principal  systems 
of  the  United  States. 


20  miles  a day  on  a good  road  at  a cost  of  about  20  cents  a 
ton-mile.  A locomotive  can  draw,  at  the  rate  of  400  miles  or  more 
a day,  40  loaded  freight  cars  each  carrying  from  10  to  50  tons,  at 
an  average  cost  of  1 cent  a ton-mile ; and  the  ore-carrying  steam- 
ers on  the  Great  Lakes  have  carried  iron  ore  at  the  rate  of 
Jg-  of  a cent  a ton-mile.  Stated  briefly  and  for  averages: 

It  costs  about  50  cents  a ton-mile  to  transport  goods  by  camels. 

It  costs  about  40  cents  a ton-mile  to  transport  goods  in  China 
by  porters. 

It  costs  about  20  cents  a ton-mile  to  transport  goods  in  the 
United  States  by  horses  and  wagons. 

It  costs  about  1 cent  a ton-mile  to  transport  goods  in  the 
United  States  by  railways. 

It  costs  about  ^ cent  a ton-mile  to  transport  iron  ore  by 
steamers  on  the  Great  Lakes  (pre-war  rate). 


METHODS  OF  TRANSPORTATION 


397 


Fig.  281.  ■ — • Unloading  a Great  Lakes  coal  carrier  at  Green  Bay,  Wis.  Coal  is 
the  second  largest  commodity  carried  on  the  Lakes.  (IF is.  Geol.  Sur .) 


Fig.  282.  — Dumping  a carload  of  coal  into  the  hold  of  a lake  steamer.  Most  of 
the  coal  shipped  on  the  lakes  is  loaded  by  this  rapid  method.  ( U . S.  Bur.  of 
Mines.) 


398 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Summary 

By  the  cheap,  rapid,  and  well-organized  transportation  systems 
of  land  and  sea,  we  are  now  provided  with  the  products  of  almost 
every  place  and  clime.  The  items  connected  with  an  average 
dinner  may  be  drawn  from  possibly  forty  or  fifty  localities  scat- 
tered widely  over  the  earth. 

Methods  of  transportation  differ  according  to  the  stage  of  a 
country’s  progress.  Rivers  are  of  great  importance  in  the  ex- 
ploration and  early  development  of  a country  and  they  may  con- 
tinue to  be  of  much  use. 

In  the  United  States,  in  Europe,  and  in  China,  canals  were  once 
much  used,  and  in  Europe  they  are  still  important,  but  in  this 
country  their  period  of  greatest  usefulness  passed  when  railroads 
became  common.  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  and  Ohio  expended 
a great  deal  of  money  on  canals.  The  Erie  Canal  in  New  York 
was  a splendid  success  and  has  recently  been  enlarged  at  the  cost 
of  over  8150,000,000. 

River  valleys  usually  offer  the  easiest  railroad  routes  in  hilly  or 
mountainous  regions.  Hence  in  the  eastern  and  western  parts  of 
the  United  States,  the  main  stream  courses  have  directed  the 
routes  of  the  principal  railroads.  Low  passes  and  water  gaps 
usually  determine  the  points  at  which  railroads  cross  mountain 
ranges  and  so  are  of  great  value  to  railway  builders. 

Transportation  on  water  has  progressed  from  the  Indian  canoe, 
through  various  types  of  river  boats  (bateaux,  flatboats,  arks,  keel 
boats,  etc.)  to  the  steamboat.  In  this  country  the  only  large 
development  of  inland  water  transportation  is  on  the  Great  Lakes. 

On  land,  methods  of  transportation  have  progressed  from  the 
time  when  men  carried  loads  on  their  backs  along  forest  trails,  or 
pack  animals  carried  them  along  narrow,  crooked  paths,  to  the 
day  of  turnpikes  with  freight  wagons  and  stagecoaches,  on  to  the 
time  when  wooden  rails  were  laid  and  horses  hauled  the  cars,  down 
to  the  present  Railroad  Era. 

The  United  States  has  40  per  cent  of  the  railroad  mileage  of  the 
world ; two-thirds  of  this  is  comprised  in  ten  great  railroad  sys- 


METHODS  OF  TRANSPORTATION 


399 


terns.  The  majority  of  these  systems,  either  directly  or  through 
connecting  lines  which  they  control,  have  one  of  their  terminals 
in  Chicago,  the  greatest  railroad  center  in  the  world. 

Water  transportation  on  the  ocean  or  on  our  Great  Lakes 
under  the  most  favorable  conditions  is  very  cheap,  being  as  low 
as  one-twentieth  of  a cent  a ton-mile  for  coal  and  iron  ore, 
while  the  average  railway  freight  rate  is  many  times  as  much, 
and  the  average  cost  of  hauling  by  horses  more  than  a hundred 
times  as  much. 

EXERCISE  XXIV 

The  author  has  provided  no  review  or  test  questions  on  this  chapter. 
It  is  suggested  that  the  pupils  themselves  prepare  this  set  of  questions,  per- 
haps 25  in  all;  some  of  them  ought  to  be  “Why”  questions,  others  “Where”  ; 
some  should  be  such  that  the  answers  are  found  directly  in  the  chapter,  while 
others  should  call  for  thought,  reasoning,  comparison,  and  possibly  for  in- 
formation related  to  the  statements  in  the  text,  yet  not  found  there. 


CHAPTER  XX 


MANUFACTURING  AND  MANUFACTURING  CENTERS  IN 
THE  UNITED  STATES 

Growth  of  Manufacturing  in  the  United  States.  — Modern 
factories,  with  acres  of  buildings  and  thousands  of  employees, 
came  into  existence  within  the  memory  of  people  who  are  now  liv- 
ing. Of  such  great  size  are  some  of  these  plants  that  they  and 
the  workmen’s  homes  would  form  cities  of  considerable  size. 
The  slow,  tiresome  hand  labor  and  the  crude  appliances  (Fig. 
283)  which  produced  the  wares  of  colonial  days  have  given  place 
in  this  country  to  mills  and  factories  which  together  turn  out 
upwards  of  a million  dollars’  worth  of  manufactures  every  five 
minutes  of  the  working  day  (Fig.  284). 

Rank  of  the  United  States.  — This  country  has  become  the 
greatest  of  manufacturing  nations.  It  produced  in  the  years 
just  before  the  World  War  twice  the  value  of  manufactured  goods 
produced  by  Great  Britain  and  three  times  the  value  of  those 
produced  by  Germany. 

Four  Essentials  of  Modem  Manufacturing.  — 

1.  Poicer,  — mainly  derived  from  coal. 

2.  Capital,  — money  or  other  property  employed  in  business. 

3.  Labor,  — both  skilled  and  unskilled. 

4.  Ability  on  the  part  of  selected  men  to  build  up  and  conduct 
great  enterprises. 

Every  one  of  these  has  a vital  part  in  manufacturing.  The 
study  of  geography,  however,  does  not  to  any  large  extent  treat 
of  capital,  labor,  or  business  ability. 

Importance  of  Coal.  — It  was  pointed  out  on  page  34  that  the 
power  concealed  in  coal  is  the  stored-up  sunshine  of  past  ages, 
that  in  300  pounds  of  coal  is  stored  away  the  capacity  for  doing 

400 


MANUFACTURING  CENTERS 


401 


as  much  work  as  an  average  workingman  can  perform  in  a year. 
When  the  steam  engine  was  discovered  and  man  found  a way  to 
use  this  energy  locked  up  in  coal,  one  of  the  greatest  steps  in  the 
progress  of  mankind  was  taken.  Step  by  step  the  steam  engine 


Fig.  283.  — An  old  mill  in  eastern  Pennsylvania.  In  similar  mills  much  of  the 
manufacturing  of  a half  century  ago  was  done. 

has  been  improved,  becoming  ever  larger  and  more  powerful. 
Inventors  are  constantly  devising  new  machines  that  will  do 
quickly  and  perfectly  the  work  which  before  only  skilled  mechan- 
ics could  do  and  do  slowly ; and  behind  most  of  the  machines  are 
the  coal-burning  engines  that  furnish  the  power.  This  is  one  of 
the  reasons  why  the  nations  which  have  abundance  of  coal  lead 
the  world. 


402 


HTGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  284.  — Plant  of  the  B.  F.  Goodrich  Rubber  Company,  Akron,  Ohio.  Akron  is  the  foremost  rubber-manufacturing 

city  in  the  world.  ( Courtesy  of  B.  F.  Goodrich  Co.) 


MANUFACTURING  CENTERS 


403 


Factors  That  Affect  the  Growth  of  Manufacturing.  — In 

most  lines  of  manufacturing  many  different  companies  are 
engaged,  each  striving  for  a share  of  the  business.  This  severe 
competition  makes  push,  resourcefulness,  and  economy  necessary, 
and  the  manufacturer  must  study  constantly  how  he  can  cut  down 
the  cost  of  production  and  increase  his  sales.  The  success  of 
his  business  depends  upon  many  factors,  with  some  of  which  the 
study  of  geography  is  concerned : 

Cost  of  Fuel.  — The  power  which  drives  three-quarters  of  our 
machinery  is  steam  power  derived  from  coal.  Single  establish- 
ments may  use  tens  of  thousands  of  tons  annually;  its  wTeight 
makes  it  relatively  costly  to  transport,  hence  factories  which  use 
much  coal  aim  to  locate  where  they  can  get  it  cheaply.  The  cost 
of  transporting  commodities  does  not  always  depend  upon  dis- 
tance ; railways  may  charge  as  much  for  hauling  coal  20  miles  as 
200  miles,  but  as  a rule,  distance  counts.  The  cost  of  transport- 
ing heavy  and  bulky  commodities  by  water  is  usually  less  than 
that  by  rail,  and  factories  which  can  secure  coal  or  raw  materials 
by  water  may  have  an  advantage.  This  is  shown  in  the  rapid 
growth  of  iron  and  steel  manufacturing  near  the  Great  Lakes. 

Available  Water  Poiver.  — Water  power  is  used  much  less  than 
steam  power  in  manufacturing;  yet,  as  a rule,  it  is  cheaper,  and 
wherever  it  is  available  factories  are  likely  to  spring  up,  as  in  New 
England,  and  at  points  such  as  Paterson,  Rochester,  Niagara 
Falls,  and  Minneapolis. 

Cost  of  Transporting  Raw  Materials.  — Into  the  price  of  every 
pair  of  shoes,  for  example,  enters  the  cost  of  transporting  the  hides 
from  which  the  leather  is  tanned,  and  into  the  price  of  every  piece 
of  furniture  enters  the  cost  of  transporting  the  lumber. 

Factories  commonly  effect  a saving  by  being  near  the  source 
of  the  principal  raw  materials  which  they  use.  In  actual  prac- 
tice there  are  many  exceptions  to  this ; for  example,  more  cotton 
goods  are  made  in  Massachusetts  than  in  any  cotton-growing 
state.  This  is  because  Massachusetts  possesses  other  advantages 
which  more  than  offset  the  disadvantage  of  being  a long  way  from 
the  cotton  fields. 


404 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Nearness  to  Markets.  — This  does  not  always,  mean  nearness  in 
miles.  A place  500  miles  away,  but  connected  by  railroad  may  for 
business  purposes  be  nearer  a given  place  than  another  only  20 
miles  away  which  is  not  connected  by  railroad.  Nearness  must 


Fig.  285.  — Distribution  of  cities  in  the  United  States.  The  siie  of  the  dot  is  pro- 
portional to  the  size  of  the  city.  ( U . S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


be  counted  in  terms  of  cost  of  transportation.  Articles  are  some- 
times shipped  across  the  Atlantic  for  less  than  the  cost  of  a rail- 
road haul  of  a few  hundred  miles  or  a wagon  haul  of  20  miles. 
Although  this  is  true,  factories  situated  in  the  eastern  states, 
where  a dense  population  furnishes  a great  market,  have  advan- 
tages over  similar  factories  located  in  sparsely  settled  sections 
of  the  country. 

Ten  Reasons  for  the  Great  Development  of  Manufacturing 
in  the  United  States 

1.  An  Invigorating  Climate.  — In  every  phase  of  a nation’s 
life  the  climate  is  of  fundamental  importance.  For  mental  and 


MANUFACTURING  CENTERS 


405 


physical  vigor  a cool  climate  with  variable  weather  is  best,  and 
in  most  parts  of  the  United  States,  as  in  most  parts  of  Europe, 
the  climate  favors  an  energetic  life  and  the  cultivation  of  the 
work-habit. 

2.  An  Energetic  People.  — Americans  are  descended  from 
Europeans,  the  most  advanced  people  of  the  world  ; and  amid  the 
great  opportunities  of  a new  and  rich  country  they  have  developed 
a degree  of  push,  inventiveness,  and  power  of  organization  which 
is  unsurpassed  in  any  other  people. 

3.  Great  Natural  Resources.  — The  United  States  is  a large 
country,  and  it  possesses  resources  of  almost  every  kind,  includ- 
ing coal,  iron,  copper,  gold,  lead,  zinc,  petroleum,  and  other  min- 
erals, an  enormous  area  of  agricultural  land,  and  great  forests. 

4.  Abundance  of  Fuel  for  Power.  — The  coal  resources  of  the 
United  States  are  the  greatest  possessed  by  any  nation,  and  in- 
clude about  one-half  of  all  the  known  coal  in  the  earth. 

5.  Capital  for  Carrying  on  Enterprises.  — The  natural  wealth 
of  the  United  States  has  yielded  the  people  of  this  country  a vast 
amount  of  capital  and  this  has  enabled  them  to  build  up  their  man- 
ufacturing and  other  industries,  which,  in  turn,  create  more  capital. 

6.  A Great  Home  Market.  — A hundred  million  people,  earn- 
ing and  accumulating  money  with  a rapidity  elsewhere  unknown, 
make  the  greatest  market  for  manufactured  goods  afforded  by 
any  country.  Ordinarily  90  per  cent  of  our  manufactures  are  used 
within  the  country. 

7.  Improved  Machinery  and  Abundant  Labor.  — The  latter 
has  been  constantly  increased  by  immigration  from  Europe. 

8.  Facilities  for  Transportation  and  Communication.- — -For 
example,  there  are  more  miles  of  railway  in  the  United  States 
than  in  Europe  and  Asia  combined,  and  twice  as  many  tele- 
phones as  in  all  the  rest  of  the  world. 

9.  Government  Encouragement.  — This  is  largely  accomplished 
by  a protective  tariff,  which  has  helped  to  keep  out  foreign 
manufactures  and  has  allowed  our  own  a favorable  opportunity 
for  growth.  It  is  doubtful  if  this  protective  tariff  is  longer 
needed,  except  in  a limited  number  of  new  industries. 


406 


HTGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


10.  A Home  Food  Supply.  — This  is  not  strictly  essential  to 
the  growth  of  manufactures,  as  the  case  of  England  shows, 
but  it  is  a decided  advantage. 

Summary 

Briefly  summarized,  the  reasons  for  America’s  leadership  in 
manufacturing  are : 

1.  The  invigorating  climate 

2.  The  inventive  and  mechanical  genius  of  the  people 

3.  The  stored-up  energy  in  its  coal  deposits 

4.  The  wealth  of  raw  materials 

5.  The  capital  which  has  been  accumulated 

6.  The  improved  machinery  and  the  abundance  of  labor 

7.  The  great  home  demand  for  manufactures 

8.  The  superior  railway  facilities  and  means  of  rapid  com- 
munication 

9.  The  protective  tariff  during  the  earlier  years  of  growth 

10.  The  ability  to  provide  at  home  a great  food  supply 

Why  Manufacturing  Is  Centered  in  the  Northeastern  States.  — 

Manufacturing  is  done  in  all  of  the  states,  but  75  per  cent  of  it 
is  done  in  states  which  lie  north  of  the  Ohio  and  Potomac  rivers 
and  east  of  the  Mississippi  River.  A narrow  strip  of  land  only 
100  miles  wide,  extending  from  Massachusetts  to  Baltimore,  is 
the  leading  factory  belt  of  the  United  States  (Fig.  286).  Of  our 
thirty  greatest  manufacturing  cities,  twelve  are  in  this  small 
strip.  Fifty  per  cent  of  our  total  manufacturing  is  done  in  five 
states  — New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Illinois,  Massachusetts,  and 
Ohio.  The  question  arises  — Why  do  five  states  7nanufacture  as 
much  as  the  other  forty-three  f 

1.  The  eastern  states  were  settled  earliest.  New  England  had 
in  general,  ( a ) thin  and  bowlder-strewn  soil  which  discouraged 
agriculture,  ( b ) rapid  rivers  affording  water  power,  (c)  many 
harbors,  and  (d)  people  who  possessed  an  aptness  for  manufac- 
turing and  business. 


MANUFACTURING  CENTERS 


407 


2.  The  richest  coal  beds  and  those  first  to  be  developed 
are  in  the  northeastern  states,  though  New  England,  New  York, 
and  New  Jersey  have  no  coal  beds  within  their  own  borders. 


Fig.  286.  — Of  the  48  leading  manufacturing  cities,  21  are  in  the  extreme  East, 
and  most  of  the  others  are  in  the  north  central  states. 


3.  Ohio,  Indiana,  Michigan,  and  Illinois  all  have  coal; 
these  states  were  settled  mainly  by  people  from  the  East,  many 
of  whom  had  had  some  experience  in  manufacturing. 

4.  The  eastern  states  get  the  largest  supply  of  labor,  because 
nearly  all  the  immigrants  land  at  the  Atlantic  ports. 

5.  The  early  start,  the  abundant  labor  and  capital,  and  the 
rapid  growth  of  business  in  the  East  led  to  the  early  building 
of  railroads,  which  still  further  increased  the  manufacturing  ad- 
vantages of  these  states. 

The  mills  of  New  England  are,  to  a noteworthy  extent,  en- 
gaged in  the  making  of  articles  which  have  high  value  in  propor- 
tion to  their  bulk,  for  all  the  coal  and  most  of  the  raw  materials 
must  be  brought  in,  and  then  a large  part  of  the  manufactured 
goods  must  in  turn  be  shipped  out.  On  the  whole,  therefore,  it 
pays  best  in  New  England  to  manufacture  the  lighter  and  more 


408 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


costly  articles,  such  as  cotton  and  woolen  cloths,  shoes,  hats,  clocks, 
jewelry,  and  thousands  of  articles  sold  in  the  department  and 
drygoods  stores.  Factories  for  the  making  of  shoes  are  particu- 
larly numerous  around  Boston,  in  fact,  five  out  of  six  of  the  fore- 


Fig.  287.  — The  New  York  Metropolitan  District.  Shaded  area  is  New  York 
City,  made  up  of  five  boroughs.  (U . S.  Census.) 

most  shoe-manufacturing  cities  of  the  United  States  are  in  that 
section.  Six  out  of  the  seven  leading  cotton-manufacturing  cities 
are  in  or  near  eastern  Massachusetts  and  Rhode  Island ; these 
are  Lowell,  Manchester,  Fall  River,  New  Bedford,  Providence, 


MANUFACTURING  CENTERS 


409 


and  Pawtucket.  Woolen-manufacturing  centers  in  Lawrence, 
jewelry  making  in  and  near  Providence,  silverware  in  Meri- 
den, clocks  in  Ansonia,  firearms  in  Springfield,  hats  in  Dan- 
bury, paper  in  Holyoke,  and  so  on  through  a long  list.  South- 
ern New  England  is  sprinkled  over  with  manufacturing  cities. 

The  New  York  Metropolitan  District  includes  New  York  City 
and  the  immediately  surrounding  region  (Fig.  287).  The  dis- 
trict includes  small  portions  of  Connecticut  and  New  Jersey,  as 
well  as  the  southern  point  of  New  York,  the  western  end  of  Long 
Island,  and  Staten  Island.  It.  is  set  thickly  with  cities  — Yonkers, 
Jersey  City,  Newark,  Passaic,  Paterson,  Hoboken,  Elizabeth, 
Bayonne,  and  several  others.  In  this  Metropolitan  District  are 
about  20  cities  of  over  25,000  population ; as  many  people  live 
there  as  in  the  whole  Dominion  of  Canada,  and  within  its  limits 
more  goods  are  manufactured  than  in  South  America  and  Canada 
combined.  There  are  several  of  our  states  and  some  foreign  coun- 
tries in  which  the  total  of  manufactures  does  not  reach  20  million 
dollars  a year ; in  the  Metropolitan  District  alone  there  are 
nearly  fifty  different  articles  each  of  which  is  manufactured  to 
the  value  of  20  million  dollars  or  more  a year. 

Near  the  water’s  edge,  in  both  New  Jersey  and  New  York,  are 
great  sugar  refineries  which  receive  raw  sugar  by  shiploads  from 
the  West  Indies,  the  East  Indies,  Hawaii,  Central  America,  and 
South  America.  There  are  enormous  oil  refineries,  fed  by  hun- 
dreds of  miles  of  pipelines  reaching  back  into  the  oil  fields  (Fig. 
34).  There  are  great  copper  refineries  receiving  copper  from 
Chile,  Peru,  Spain,  Mexico,  Asia,  and  any  other  part  of  the  world 
where  copper  ore  is  mined.  The  products  of  these  three  groups 
of  refineries  alone  are  measured  in  hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars 
a year.  About  40  per  cent  of  the  men’s  clothing  and  about 
70  per  cent  of  the  women’s  clothing  made  in  the  United 
States  are  made  in  New  York  City.  Indeed  this  one  city  now 
manufactures  more  goods  than  the  entire  United  States  manu- 
factured in  1860. 

In  New  Jersey’s  part  of  the  Metropolitan  District  are  seven 
large  manufacturing  cities  and  many  others  of  lesser  size.  They 


410 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


are  all  closely  knit  together  and  all  closely  joined  to  New  York 
in  their  business  interests.  However,  New  York  City  alone  pro- 
duces more  manufactured  goods  than  are  made  in  the  rest  of  the 
Metropolitan  District. 

The  Philadelphia-Baltimore  District.- — Philadelphia  ranks  third 
in  total  product  among  our  manufacturing  cities,  yet  in  the  com- 


Fig.  288.  — A small  portion  of  Cramp’s  shipbuilding  yards,  Philadelphia.  Dur- 
ing the  World  War  the  Delaware  became  the  leading  shipbuilding  river  of  the 
world. 


pleteness  with  which  its  business  interests  gather  around  manu- 
facturing, it  may  almost  be  given  first  place.  Omitting  our  six 
foremost  manufacturing  states,  Philadelphia  makes  more  manu- 
factured goods  than  the  remaining  forty-two  states.  In  the  mak- 
ing of  carpets,  rugs,  and  hosiery,  it  leads  all  the  cities  of  the  United 
States.  Its  oil  and  sugar  refineries  are  among  the  largest  in  the 
country.  The  Philadelphia  district  includes  cities  on  the  Dela- 
ware from  Trenton  south.  The  leading  city  of  Delaware  is 


MANUFACTURING  CENTERS 


411 


Wilmington;  in  Maryland  is  the  important  port  and  manufac- 
turing city  of  Baltimore,  which  ranks  high  among  our  great  man- 


Fig.  289.  — Principal  cotton-manufacturing  states.  Areas  of  circles  are  in  pro- 
portion to  amount  of  cotton  consumed  in  each  state.  (U . S.  Dept,  of  Agr.)( 


412 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  290.  — Lower  New  York. 


MANUFACTURING  CENTERS 


413 


ufacturing  centers.  Baltimore  is  usually  classed  as  a southern 
city,  and  if  so  considered,  it  is  the  foremost  manufacturing  city 
of  the  South.  It  will  be  recalled  that  our  principal  shipbuild- 
ing yards,  now  the  greatest  in  the  world,  are  on  the  bays  and  rivers 
between  the  Hudson  and  the  James  (Va.)  (Fig.  288). 

Our  Greatest  Manufacturing  Section.  — It  is  a ten  hours’ 
ride  by  train  from  Boston  to  Baltimore,  yet  in  that  trip  you 
will  pass  through  ten  important  manufacturing  cities  and  a half 
dozen  others  which,  in  most  parts  of  the  country,  would  be  called 
large  cities.  If  the  journey  were  made  by  aeroplane  on  a clear 
day,  you  would  pass  almost  in  sight  of  factories  which  produce  a 
third  (in  value)  of  the  manufactured  goods  made  in  the  entire 
United  States. 

The  Pittsburgh  Iron  and  Steel  District.  — This  is  the  most  im- 
portant iron  and  steel  center  in  the  United  States.  At  one  time 
Pennsylvania  was  a leading  state  in  the  production  of  iron  ore, 
and  with  coal  and  limestone  at  hand  for  smelting  it,  important 
iron  industries  sprang  up.  Later,  the  vastly  richer  deposits  of 
ore  near  Lake  Superior  were  found,  and  the  cheap  transportation 
of  this  ore  by  way  of  the  Great  Lakes  enabled  the  iron  industry 
to  continue  in  the  Pittsburgh  district  and  in  other  parts  of  Penn- 
sylvania where  it  was  already  rooted.  The  superior  quality  of  the 
coke  produced  near  Pittsburgh  is  one  of  the  chief  reasons  for  the 
growth  of  this  vast  industry  in  western  Pennsylvania  and  eastern 
Ohio.  Little  by  little,  other  steel-making  centers  are  growing 
up,  as  at  Buffalo,  N.  Y.,  Gary,  Ind.,  Youngstown,  Ohio, 
Chicago,  111.,  Birmingham,  Ala.,  Milwaukee,  Wis.,  and  Duluth, 
Minn. 

Manufacturing  in  the  North  Central  States.  — It  has  been 
pointed  out  that  manufacturing  in  the  belt  from  Baltimore  to 
Boston  is  remarkable  for  the  great  variety  and  the  high  value  of 
the  products.  Only  a small  part  of  the  raw  materials  used  in  these 
factories  is  produced  in  the  East;  they  are  brought  from  every- 
where. But  when  we  have  crossed  the  Appalachian  Mountains 
quite  a different  set  of  conditions  is  found.  Most  of  the  cities 
on  the  Great  Lakes  and  in  the  states  between  the  Lakes  and  the 


414 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Ohio  River  manufacture  articles  in  which  iron  and  steel  figure 
very  prominently.  This  is  because  the  iron  ore  from  the  Lake 
Superior  mines  reaches  this  region  cheaply  by  way  of  the  Lakes 
and  also  because  in  these  agricultural  states  a heavy  demand  for 
iron  and  steel  products  always  exists.  Here  railroads,  the  larg- 
est users  of  iron  and  steel,  are  particularly  numerous.  It  is  a 
wealthy  farming  section  where  an  enormous  quantity  of  farm 
machinery  and  engines,  wagons,  automobiles,  windmills,  fence 
wire,  and  of  all  kinds  of  hardware  is  used.  Illinois,  for 
example,  makes  about  40  per  cent  of  all  the  farming  machinery 
manufactured  in  this  country. 

In  the  western  half  of  this  section,  convenient  to  the  grazing 
lands  and  the  corn  belt,  slaughtering  and  meat-packing  estab- 
lishments are  located  in  nearly  every  large  city.  In  value  of 
products  this  is  the  leading  manufacturing  industry  in  the  United 
States  (Fig.  201). 

The  states  on  the  Great  Lakes  have  long  been  the  largest  mak- 
ers of  all  kinds  of  vehicles,  and  when  the  automobile  came  into 
use  some  of  these  carriage  and  wagon  factories  turned  their  ex- 
perience and  capital  into  the  making  of  automobiles.  Detroit, 
the  chief  center,  makes  upwards  of  one-fourth  of  all  the  automo- 
biles made  in  the  United  States ; one  factory  turns  out  three  au- 
tomobiles a minute.  All  of  the  leading  centers  of  automobile 
manufacturing  are  in  the  states  which  touch  Lake  Erie  and  Lake 
Michigan  (Fig.  292).  The  exceedingly  rapid  growth  of  Akron, 
Ohio,  in  recent  years  has  been  due  to  the  rubber  plants  in  that 
city ; the  largest  use  for  rubber  is  now  in  the  making  of  rubber 
tires. 

The  forests  of  Michigan  and  Wisconsin  have  given  rise  to  many 
lumber  mills,  to  pulp  mills  and  paper  mills,  to  tanneries,  furni- 
ture factories,  and  scores  of  other  wood-using  industries  (Fig. 
293). 

Chicago.  — Chicago  is  the  industrial  and  commercial  center  of 
the  Middle  West ; it  is  the  hub  of  the  railroad  systems  of  America, 
in  fact,  the  greatest  railroad  center  in  the  world,  and  it  is  sur- 
rounded by  a wonderfully  rich  agricultural  region.  Its  situation  as  a 


MANUFACTURING  CENTERS 


415 


manufacturing  and  distributing  point  is  ideal,  for  it  is  within  easy 
reach  of  coal,  iron,  lumber,  copper,  petroleum,  cattle,  hogs,  and 
grain.  Among  American  cities  it  ranks  second  only  to  New  York 
in  population,  and  holds  first  place  in  many  important  lines  of 


Fig.  291.  — Slaughtered  hogs  in  one  of  the  great  packing  houses  of  Chicago. 

({/.  S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 

manufacturing,  including  meat-packing,  machinery,  cars,  and 
blast  furnace  products  (Fig.  294).  The  value  of  its  manufac- 
tures exceeds  the  combined  total  of  nineteen  states  of  the  Union; 
only  five  states  manufacture  more  goods  than  this  single  city. 

St.  Louis.  — This  is  the  largest  of  the  Mississippi  River  cities 
and  is  one  of  the  half  dozen  greatest  industrial  centers  of  the 
United  States.  It  has  a wide  range  of  manufactures,  the  leaders 
of  which  are  boots  and  shoes,  tobacco,  and  meat  products.  It 
has  long  been  the  chief  distributing  center  for  the  Southwest. 

Cleveland,  Detroit,  and  Mihcaukee  (with  Chicago)  are  the  dom- 


416 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


in  ant  manufacturing 
centers  on  the  Great 
Lakes ; all  are  large 
manufacturers  of  ma- 
chinery and  other  prod- 
ucts in  which  iron  and 
steel  are  used.  Milwau- 
kee is  also  the  second 
city  in  the  United  States 
in  the  tanning  of  leather. 

Cincinnati  and  Louis- 
ville are  on  the  southern 
margin  of  the  iron-  and 
steel-making  region,  and 
are  primarily  engaged 
in  other  lines  of  industry ; 
Cincinnati  is  one  of  the 
large  meat-packing  and 
clothing  centers,  while 
Louisville  is  one  of  the 
leading  tobacco  markets 
of  the  United  States. 

Indianapolis  is  typical 
of  the  cities  of  the 
Middle  West,  with  its 
meat-packing  plants  and 
its  manufactures  of  ma- 
chinery and  automobiles. 
Kansas  City  (Kan.)  and 
South  Omaha  (Neb.)  are 
among  the  great  meat- 
packing centers.  Kansas 
City  (Mo.)  and  St.  Paul 
are  prominent  mercan- 
tile, banking,  and  rail- 
road centers,  with  varied 


MANUFACTURING  CENTERS 


417 


manufactures.  Minneapolis  leads  all  in  flour-milling  and  is  the 
great  lumber  center  of  the  Northwest. 

Thus,  it  is  evident  that  manufacturing  in  the  north  central 
states,  unlike  that  in  the  eastern  states,  is  notably  dependent 


Jig.  293.  — One  of  the  great  lumber  mills  of  northern  Wisconsin.  The  greater 
part  of  the  timber  has  been  cut  from  the  Great  Lakes  region  and  most  of  the 
great  saw  mills  are  gone.  ( Courtesy  N . W.  Lumber  Co.) 


upon  raw  materials  which  the  section  produces.  It  is  to  be  noted, 
however,  that  in  these  states  there  are  also  great  industries  which 
are  not  dependent  upon  raw  materials  produced  near  by,  as, 
for  example,  the  shoe  factories  of  St.  Louis,  the  clothing  factories 
of  Chicago,  the  rubber  industries  of  Akron,  Ohio,  and  numerous 
other  examples. 

Manufacturing  in  the  South.  — As  has  already  been  stated, 
the  people  of  the  southern  states  have  devoted  themselves  more 
largely  to  agriculture  than  to  manufacturing.  About  15  per 


418 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  294.  — Portion  ol  the  Chicago  stock  yards.  Chicago  is  the  leading  meat-packing  city  of  the  world. 


MANUFACTURING  CENTERS 


419 


cent  of  the  manufacturing  of  the  United  States  is  done  in  the 
South  ; for  some  time  past,  however,  manufacturing  there  has  been 


Fig.  295.  — Distribution  of  cotton  mills.  They  are  nearly  all  east-of  the  Appa- 
lachians. ( U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


420 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


increasing.  On  the  lower  slopes  of  the  Appalachian  highland  and 
along  the  Piedmont,  where  water  power  is  abundant,  cotton  mills 
have  been  built  in  large  numbers.  North  and  South  Carolina 
and  Georgia  now  rank  among  the  leading  cotton-manufacturing 


Fig.  296.  — An  iron  smelter  in  Colorado. 

states  (Fig.  295).  In  the  sawing  of  lumber  and  the  making  of 
furniture,  several  of  the  southern  states  hold  important  positions. 
The  manufacture  of  tobacco  in  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  and  Ken- 
tucky, of  cigars  in  Florida,  of  sugar  and  molasses  in  Louisiana, 
of  cottonseed  oil  in  Texas,  and  of  iron  and  steel  in  Alabama  and 
Tennessee  are  industries  of  nation-wide  importance.  Birming- 
ham, Ala.,  is  one  of  the  rising  iron  and  steel  centers  of  the  coun- 
try. In  the  South,  as  in  the  Middle  West,  the  kind  of  man- 
ufacturing depends  largely  upon  the  raw  materials  which  the 
region  produces ; this  fact  is  always  true  of  a region  in  the  earlier 


MANUFACTURING  CENTERS 


421 


Fig.  297.  - — An  immense  saw  mill  in  Idaho. 


422 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


stages  of  manufacturing.  Later,  industries  grow  up  which  are 
not  dependent  upon  local  raw  materials,  as  is  clearly  shown  in  the 
older  eastern  states. 


Fig.  298.  • — Map  showing  the  distribution  of  manufacturing  by  states  in  1910. 
Each  dot  represents  $100,000,000  worth  of  manufactured  goods.  The  figures 
for  1920  show  about  three  times  this  value ; approximately  half  of  this  increase, 
however,  is  due  to  higher  prices. 


Manufacturing  in  the  Western  Half  of  the  United  States.  — 

About  6 to  8 per  cent  of  the  manufacturing  of  the  United  States 
is  done  in  the  mountain  and  Pacific  states.  Of  the  50  leading 
manufacturing  cities,  4 only  are  in  the  western  half  of  the  coun- 
try. These  are  Denver,  Seattle,  San  Francisco,  and  Los  Angeles. 
Yet,  in  the  value  of  manufactures  per  capita  of  the  population, 
the  Pacific  states  rank  fifth  in  the  nine  groups  of  states  into 
which  the  country  is  divided  by  the  Census  Bureau.  The  manu- 
facture of  lumber  and  other  wood  products  is  the  largest  industry 
in  each  of  the  three  Pacific  coast  states.  The  canning  of  fruit 
in  California,  and  of  salmon  in  Oregon,  Washington,  and  Alaska, 
are  large  industries  (page  357).  The  smelting  of  ores  is  impor- 
tant near  the  great  mining  centers  in  Montana,  Arizona,  Utah, 


MANUFACTURING  CENTERS 


423 


Colorado,  and  other  mountain  states.  Colorado  has  quite  exten- 
sive iron  and  steel  industries  (Fig.  296),  and  the  largest  part  of 
our  beet  sugar  is  made  in  Colorado  and  California.  Oil  refining 
in  California  has  also  risen  to  large  proportions.  It  will  be  noted 
that  all  of  these  industries  use  the  raw  materials  of  the  regions. 


Summary 

It  is  convenient  to  divide  the  territory  of  the  United  States 
into  four  sections  with  respect  to  manufacturing  : 

1.  The  Northeastern  Section  is  the  oldest,  most  fully  developed, 
and  populous  of  the  four  sections;  here,  in  a belt  about  100  miles 
wide,  reaching  from  Boston  to  Baltimore,  an  area  no  larger  than 
Indiana,  are  located  21  of  the  50  leading  manufacturing  cities  of 
the  United  States.  Here  manufacturing  depends  but  little  upon 
raw  materials  produced  in  the  region ; the  mills  make  an  endless 
variety  of  goods,  generally  of  high  value  in  proportion  to  their 
bulk,  and  ship  them  to  all  parts  of  this  country  and  abroad. 

2.  The  North  Central  Section,  lying  between  the  Great  Lakes, 
the  Ohio,  and  the  Missouri  rivers,  includes  24  of  the  50  leading 
manufacturing  cities  (Fig.  286).  It  is  particularly  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  products  in  which  the  raw  materials  produced 
in  the  section  are  very  largely  used,  such  as  iron  and  steel  near  the 
Lakes,  lumber,  paper,  and  other  wood  products  in  Michigan  and 
Wisconsin,  automobiles  in  Michigan,  farming  machinery  in  Illi- 
nois, flour  in  Minnesota,  and  meat  products  in  all  of  the 
large  cities. 

3.  The  South  is  more  largely  an  agricultural  than  an  industrial 
section,  but  it  is  rich  in  raw  materials,  coal,  and  water  power,  and 
is  steadily  developing  in  manufacturing,  notably  in  cotton  goods, 
wood  products,  sugar,  steel,  and  tobacco. 

4.  The  I Vest,  mountainous,  lacking  in  rainfall,  and  thinly  popu- 
lated, has  as  yet  built  up  comparatively  little  manufacturing  ex- 
cept on  the  Pacific  slope,  where  a rapid  industrial  expansion  is  in 
progress. 


424 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


EXERCISE  XXV 

Problems 

1.  Though  Great  Britain  and  France  are  old  and  in  some  ways  more  ad- 
vanced than  the  United  States,  yet  the  manufactures  of  both  together  are 
much  less  in  value  than  those  of  the  United  States.  Give  reasons  for  this. 

2.  From  the  ten  reasons  for  the  great  development  of  manufacturing  in 
the  United  States,  given  on  page  404,  select  the  five  reasons  which  you  re- 
gard as  the  most  important,  and  tell  why  you  selected  them. 

3.  While  the  United  States  produces  manufactured  goods  more  than 
twice  as  great  in  value  as  Great  Britain  does,  it  has  more  than  twice  the 
population  of  Great  Britain  and  more  than  30  times  the  area.  Which  of 
the  two  countries  should  be  ranked  first  as  a manufacturing  nation  f Give 
your  reasons. 

4.  Both  Russia  and  China  are  larger  and  more  populous  than  the  United 
States;  both  have  great  natural  resources,  including  coal  and  iron,  and  an 
invigorating  climate.  Why  are  they  not  prominent  manufacturing  nations? 

5.  Account  for  the  fact  that  up  to  1915  the  United  States  exported  fewer 
manufactured  goods  than  Great  Britain. 

6.  What  is  a tariff?  A protective  tariff?  Why  called  “protective”? 
How  does  a protective  tariff  help  to  build  up  a nation’s  manufacturing  in- 
dustries? Does  such  a tariff  make  goods  more  expensive  to  the  consumer? 
Be  prepared  to  defend  your  answer. 

7.  Cheap  fuel  is  almost  a necessity  in  building  up  manufacturing  in- 
dustries, yet  neither  New  England  nor  New  York  has  coal  deposits.  Explain 
this  apparent  contradiction. 

8.  Suppose  you  desired  to  enter  into  some  manufacturing  enterprise  on 
a large  scale.  In  what  part  of  the  United  States  would  you  locate: 

(а)  a meat-packing  plant?  ( d ) a cotton  mill? 

(б)  a paper  mill?  (e)  a steel-making  plant? 

(e)  a cane  sugar  refinery?  (/)  a silk  mill? 

Might  there  be  several  places  equally  advantageous  for  each  of  these? 
Explain.  With  respect  to  each  of  the  above  industries,  name  sections  of  the 
country  where  you  certainly  would  not  locate  it.  Give  reasons. 

9.  The  states  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois,  as  a group,  rank  high  in 
agriculture,  in  manufacturing,  in  mining,  and  in  railway  mileage.  Give  some 
of  the  reasons.  Which  one  of  the  four  is  essential  to  the  success  of  all  ? 

10.  Give  reasons  why  the  South  has  devoted  less  attention  to  manufac- 
turing than  the  North.  Why  is  manufacturing  less  developed  in  the  West 
than  in  the  East?  Many  people  in  the  South  do  not  desire  mills  and  fac- 
tories in  their  midst.  Suggest  reasons. 

11.  Give  reasons  for  each  of  the  following  facts  : 

(a)  Manufacturing  has  developed  faster  along  the  Great  Lakes  than  along 
the  Mississippi ; 

( b ) on  the  shores  of  Lake  Michigan  than  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Huron ; 

(c)  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Erie  than  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Ontario ; 

(d)  along  the  Ohio  than  along  the  Missouri ; 

(e)  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States  than  on  the  Pacific  coast. 


PART  TWO 


426 


EIG.  298 


CHAPTER  XXI 

LATIN  AMERICA  1 

From  the  Rio  Grande  to  Cape  Horn  stretches  a vast  area 
which  was  conquered  and  colonized  by  Spain  and  Portugal  four 
centuries  ago.  About  a hundred  years  ago  these  colonies  re- 
volted and,  with  the  exception  of  Brazil,  established  republics. 
Brazil,  the  only  Portuguese  colony,  established  a monarchy,  but 
in  1889  changed  to  a republic.  European  powers  gained  control 
of  the  various  islands  of  the  West  Indies  and  still  hold  the  major- 
ity of  them.  Latin  America  includes  Mexico,  the  islands  of 
Cuba  and  Haiti,  six  Central  American  and  ten  South  American 
republics,  in  all  of  which,  with  the  exception  of  Brazil  and  apart 
of  Haiti,  Spanish  is  the  national  language.  The  northern  part 
of  Mexico  and  the  southern  quarter  of  South  America  are  the 
only  portions  of  Latin  America  which  are  not  within  the  tropics. 
In  all  the  tropical  countries  except  Cuba  the  colored  races 
greatly  outnumber  the  whites.  This  part  of  Latin  America  (Bra- 
zil excepted)  was  long  afflicted  with  revolutions,  corrupt  govern- 
ments, and  backwardness  generally ; but  improvement  is  going 
on  and  several  of  the  countries  including  Cuba  and  Brazil  and 
the  temperate  zone  countries,  Uruguay,  Argentina,  and  Chile, 
are  taking  respected  places  in  the  family  of  nations. 

1 The  countries  of  the  western  hemisphere  south  of  the  United  States  are  re- 
ferred to  as  Latin  America  because  the  people  speak  Spanish  or  Portuguese, 
which  are  based  upon  Latin.  In  this  chapter  the  author  has  included,  because 
of  their  situation,  Porto  Rico,  Jamaica,  the  Panama  Canal  Zone,  and  a few  small 
islands  which  belong  to  the  United  Statas  or  Great  Britain. 

127 


428 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Mexico 

The  Mexican  People.  — Over  80  per  cent  of  the  Mexican  popula- 
tion is  composed  of  Indians  or  mestizos  (mes-tee'zoz) ; the  latter  are 
of  mixed  white  and  Indian  parentage.  Most  of  the  white  peo- 
ple are  of  Spanish  descent  and  this  small  white  minority  owns  the 


greater  part  of  the  land  and  holds  most  of  the  important  offices. 
Eighty-five  per  cent  of  the  people  are  poor  and  illiterate.  The 
upper  class  of  Mexicans  includes  people  of  high  education,  refine- 
ment, and  wealth ; but  as  a nation  the  Mexicans  have  not  shown 
themselves  able  to  maintain  a stable  republic. 

The  Country.  — Mexico  is  a little  over  one-fourth  the  size  of 
the  United  States  and  has  a population  of  about  15,000,000,  which 
is  considerably  greater  than  that  of  Canada.  It  is  essentially  a 
plateau  bordered  by  high  mountain  ranges  on  either  side  (Fig. 
299),  and  in  the  north  is  deficient  in  rainfall;  the  high  altitude 


LATIN  AMERICA 


429 


makes  the  climate  reasonably  healthy  and  agreeable,  but  fully 
half  of  the  land  is  of  little  use  for  agriculture. 

Resources.  — In  minerals  Mexico  is  exceedingly  rich ; it  has 
yielded  approximately  $4,000,000,000  worth  of  minerals  since 
the  Spanish  conquest  four  hundred  years  ago.  It  is  one  of 


Fig.  300.  ■ — Percentage  of  the  world’s  petroleum  produced  by  different  countries 
in  1921.  Russia’s  production  is  far  below  normal  and  Mexico’s  production  is 
rising  rapidly. 


the  foremost  silver-producing  nations  and  an  important  producer 
of  gold,  copper,  lead,  and  several  other  metals.  On  the  other 
hand  it  is  handicapped  by  the  lack  of  coal,  and  very  little  iron  is 
mined.  One  of  the  chief  oil  fields  of  the  world  is  in  eastern 
Mexico  near  Tampico  and  Tuxpam,  and  in  the  Isthmus  of  Te- 
huantepec. Mexico  is  now  the  second  largest  producer  of  petro- 
leum (United  States,  Mexico,  Russia).  In  1921  there  were  25 
ivells  in  Mexico  capable  of  producing  600,000  barrels  daily.  The 
character  of  the  oil  and  the  nearness  of  the  fields  to  the  coast  make 
the  Mexican  oil  particularly  desirable  for  oil-burning  ships  (Fig.  299) . 

Less  than  a quarter  of  the  land  is  used  for  agriculture,  and  most 
of  that  is  held  in  great  estates  which  are  poorly  cultivated  or  are 
used  for  grazing.  From  5 to  10  per  cent  of  the  land  is  covered 
with  forests  which  contain  valuable  woods,  but  the  timber  is 
difficult  to  secure  because  of  lack  of  transportation.  In  the  pen- 
insula of  Yucatan  are  extensive  areas  which  produce  the  fiber- 
producing  plant  called  henequen ; most  of  this  (350,000,000  lb. 
a year)  goes  to  the  United  States  and  is  made  into  binder  twine 
and  other  forms  of  cordage. 


430 


HfGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  301.  — Agricultural  lands  on  the  plateau  of  southern  Mexico.  (©  Keyettme  View  Co.) 


LATIN  AMERICA 


431 


Industries.  — The  majority  of  the  people  live  by  means  of 
primitive  agriculture ; corn  is  the  chief  food  crop.  A main  cause 
of  the  chronic  discontent  among  the  people  is  that  the  land  is 
nearly  all  in  the  possession  of  rich  land-holders  who  treat  the 


Fig.  302.  — Map  showing  that  most  of  the  larger  cities  of  Mexico  are  at  altitudes 
above  5000  feet.  The  figures  indicate  altitudes  in  hundreds  of  meters.  (After 
Mark  Jefferson , Geographical  Review,  1917.) 


laborers  (called  peons)  with  scanty  consideration.  Mining  is  a 
great  industry,  but  most  of  the  large  mining  properties  are  owned 
by  foreigners,  especially  Americans.  The  oil  fields  are  mainly 
controlled  by  American  and  English  capital,  as  are  many  of 
the  cattle  and  sheep  ranches.  The  Mexicans  seem  unable  to 
develop  the  resources  of  their  country  and  at  times  resent  the  in- 
trusion of  foreigners  who  seek  to  do  so.  There  is  some  reason  for 
their  resentment  and  it  is  important  that  the  United  States  treat 
Mexico  with  patience  and  justice.  Manufacturing  was  making 


432 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


some  progress  until  the  revolutionary  period  which  began  in  1910 ; 
but  Mexico  is  likely  to  continue  to  import  the  bulk  of  the  manu- 
factured goods  used  by  her  people. 

Means  of  Transportation.  The  high  mountains  near  the 
coasts  make  the  building  of  railroads  to  the  interior  difficult  and 
expensive,  yet  several  lines  with  their  branches  have  been  built 
over  these  mountains.  Mexico  ranks  third  among  Latin  Ameri- 
can countries  in  railway  mileage.  Several  important  lines  cross 
the  border  from  the  United  States  and  traverse  the  country  from 
north  to  south.  In  normal  times  a through  Pullman  train  runs 
between  St.  Louis  and  Mexico  City. 

Foreign  Trade.  — In  peace  times  Mexico  carries  on  a large 
trade  with  the  United  States  which,  because  of  its  nearness,  gets 
about  two-thirds  of  that  trade.  Metals,  oil,  sisal  fiber  or  henequen, 
coffee,  and  hides,  are  the  chief  exports.  The  imports  are  varied, 
but  include  manufactured  goods,  railway  equipment,  mining 
machinery,  coal,  and  coke.  Our  trade  with  the  15  million 
people  of  Mexico  is  as  great  as  that  with  the  400  million 
people  of  China,  but  less  than  that  with  the  3 million  of  Cuba. 

Summary 

While  Mexico  is  in  part  a tropical  country,  it  is  made  up  of 
mountains  and  plateaus  and  the  climate  is  not  disagreeably  hot 
in  the  highlands;  it  has  enormous  mineral  wealth,  especially  sil- 
ver, copper,  lead,  and  petroleum.  There  are  extensive,  unused 
lands  suited  to  agriculture  and  grazing,  and  the  country  has  a 
favorable  position  for  commerce,  especially  with  the  United 
States.  The  people  lack  capital  and  business  ability;  the  land 
system  is  bad  and  a great  majority  of  the  people  are  landless  and 
illiterate,  and  live  by  means  of  agriculture  crudely  carried  on,  or 
work  for  others;  and,  worst  of  all,  Mexico  has  not  been  able  to 
maintain  a stable  government.  The  larger  enterprises  are 
financed  with  foreign  capital,  most  of  which  was  invested  before 
the  last  period  of  misgovernment  demoralized  the  nation.  Manu- 
facturing has  made  only  moderate  progress.  From  one-half  to 
three-fourths  of  the  foreign  trade  is  with  the  United  States,  and 


LATIN  AMERICA 


433 


cordial  relations  ought  to  exist  between  the  two  countries.  When 
one  notes  the  wonderful  progress  made  by  Cuba  under  a stable 
government  he  sees  what  might  he  done  by  Mexico  much 
richer,  larger,  and  more  populous  — if  the  right  kind  of  govern- 
ment existed  there. 

Central  America 

The  neck  of  land  which  connects  Mexico  and  South  America 
is  divided  into  six  small  republics  and  the  little  colony  of  Brit- 
ish Honduras.  The  largest  of  the  republics  (Nicaragua)  is  about 
the  size  of  New  York  State,  and  the  most  populous  (Guatemala) 
has  somewhat  over  2,000,000  people.  The  republics  are  Gua- 
temala, Honduras,  Nicaragua,  Salvador,  Costa  Rica,  and  Panama. 
Costa  Rica  and  Panama  are  in  advance  of  the  other  countries  in 
nearly  every  way.  All  are  tropical  lands  with  dense  jungles  on 
the  east  (windward)  side  of  the  mountain  system  which  extends 
through  them.  There  is  only  one  city  having  as  many  as  100,000 
population ; the  people  and  the  cities  are  mainly  on  the  Pacific 
side,  and  in  the  highlands,  where  the  altitude  partially  offsets  the 
tropical  heat.  The  great  majority  of  the  people  are  Indians  and 
mestizos,  mostly  illiterate  and  thriftless.  A small  minority  of 
the  people  are  white  descendants  of  old  Spanish  families;  these 
and  the  foreigners  own  most  of  the  land  and  conduct  most  of  the 
enterprises.  Agriculture  is  the  principal  occupation.  Coffee 
plantations  on  the  Pacific  slope  and  banana  plantations  near  the 
eastern  coast  are  the  chief  sources  of  exports.  Most  of  the  coffee 
plantations  are  owned  by  Central  Americans,  but  the  large  ba- 
nana plantations  are  owned  by  Americans,  notably  by  the  United 
Fruit  Company.  (Forty  per  cent  of  the  exported  bananas  of  the 
world  come  from  Central  America.)  Some  of  the  large  plantations 
produce  upwards  of  a million  pounds  of  coffee  annually  (Fig.  305). 
The  United  Fruit  Company  has  over  100,000  acres  of  banana  plan- 
tations in  the  Caribbean  region  and  ships  40  to  50  million  bunches 
yearly,  mostly  to  the  United  States.  There  is  very  little  man- 
ufacturing, few  roads,  and  only  a small  railway  mileage.  Rev- 
olutions and  disorders  are  frequent,  yet  slow  progress  is  being  made. 


434 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


On  a number  of  occasions  a part  or  all  of  the  Central  Amer- 
ican nations  have  attempted  some  sort  of  a confederation,  but  the 


(©  Keystone  View  Co.) 


Fig.  303.  — Native  Indians  and  their  home  in  Guatemala,  Central  America. 


The  Federated  Republic  of  Central  America,  formed  in  192f  is  made  up  of  Guatemala , Salvador,  and  Honduras 

FIG.  304 


LATIN  AMERICA 


435 


attempt  has  not  succeeded.  In  1921,  three  of  the  countries  — 
Guatemala,  Salvador,  and  Honduras  — formed  a new  union,  but 
its  success  is  problematical. 

Panama,  which  became  independent  of  Colombia  in  1903,  has 


Fig.  305.  — Number  of  bunches  of  bananas  shipped  to  the  United  States  from 
various  Caribbean  countries  in  1920. 


an  orderly  government  and  is  in  a prosperous  condition.  The 
United  States  is  in  possession  of  the  Canal  Zone,  a strip  five  miles 
wide  on  each  side  of  the  Panama  Canal. 

The  Panama  Canal  (Fig.  304).  — This  is  one  of  the  great  en- 
gineering triumphs  of  the  United  States.  A French  company 
attempted  to  construct  a canal  at  Panama,  but  after  expending 
millions  of  dollars  and  sacrificing  thousands  of  lives  to  tropical 
diseases,  the  company  became  bankrupt  and  finally  sold  its  rights 
to  the  United  States,  which  began  work  on  the  canal  in  1904  and 
opened  it  for  traffic  in  1914.  It  is  about  50  miles  long,  and  has 


436 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


three  pairs  of  locks  near  eacli  end  ; it  has  already  cost  over  $400,- 
000,000.  Vessels  carrying  passengers  or  cargo  pay  a toll  of  $1 .20 
per  ton  for  passing  through  the  canal ; vessels  in  ballast  pay  less. 
The  canal  is  of  great  value  to  the  United  States  for  both  military 


Fig.  306.  — • Miraflores  locks  in  the  Panama  Canal. 

and  commercial  reasons.  Between  3000  and  4000  ships  pass 
through  the  canal  yearly,  and  the  income  from  tolls  pays  the  cost 
of  operation  but  does  not  pay  off  any  of  the  cost  of  construction. 

The  West  Indies 

This  large  and  important  group  of  islands  is  made  up  of  the 
Greater  Antilles  and  the  Lesser  Antilles  (Fig.  304).  Four  of  the 
largest  islands  compose  the  Greater  Antilles : Cuba,  Haiti,  Ja- 
maica, and  Porto  Rico. 

Cuba  is  an  independent  republic  under  the  guardianship  of  the 
United  States.  In  length  it  would  reach  nearly  from  New  York 


LATIN  AMERICA 


437 


to  Chicago.  It  is  as  large  as  Ohio  and  has  a population  of  over 
two  and  one-half  millions.  Havana,  the  capital  and  chief  port, 
is  a stirring  city  of  four  hundred  thousand  people.  Cuba  has  be- 
come one  of  the  most  stable  and  prosperous  of  the  Latin  American 


Fig.  307.  — Map  showing  the  locations  of  the  200  sugar  mills  of  Cuba.  The  bars 
represent  the  average  annual  production  of  sugar  in  the  leading  cane  sugar  pro- 
ducing countries. 


countries.  Its  great  crop  is  sugar  cane,  of  which  it  is  the  world’s 
leading  producer  (Fig.  307).  The  raw  sugar  is  made  from  the 
sweet  juice  of  the  cane  extracted  by  grinding  and  pressing.  The 
juice  is  boiled  and  the  raw  sugar  crystallizes  out.  Most  of  the 
raw  sugar  comes  to  the  United  States,  where  it  is  refined  and  con- 
sumed. 

The  other  important  crop  is  tobacco,  raised  in  the  western  end 
of  the  island  and  regarded  as  the  choicest  cigar-making  leaf  in 
the  world  (Fig.  309).  The  principal  mineral  product  is  iron, 
mined  in  the  eastern  end  of  the  island ; most  of  this  goes  to  iron 
works  in  Maryland.  Cuba’s  commerce,  remarkably  large  for 
a country  of  its  size  and  population,  is  mainly  with  its  near 
neighbor,  the  United  States,  as  is  also  true  of  Mexico  and  in  large 
degree  of  Canada. 

Haiti.  — This  island  has  two  republics,  Haiti  and  the  Domin- 
ican Republic,  badly  governed  and  very  backward ; the  people 
are  practically  all  negroes.  Tropical  agriculture  is  the  principal 
industry,  and  sugar  and  cacao  the  principal  crops. 


438 


HTGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Jamaica,  the  size  of  Connecticut,  belongs  to  Great  Britain; 
the  upper  official  positions  and  the  larger  financial  enterprises 
are  mainly  in  the  hands  of  the  white  residents,  but  over  90 
per  cent  of  the  people  are  negroes,  descendants  of  former  slaves. 


Formerly  Jamaica  was  a very  large  producer  of  sugar  and,  later, 
of  bananas,  but  destructive  hurricanes  ruined  many  of  the  plan- 
tations ; the  exportation  of  bananas  dropped  from  16  million 
bunches  in  1914  to  less  than  3 million  in  1919,  but  gradually  rose 
again  in  following  years.  The  capital,  Kingston,  has  an  excel- 
lent harbor  and  is  one  of  the  principal  naval  stations  of  Great 
Britain  in  the  West  Indies. 

Porto  Rico  formerly  belonged  to  Spain  but  became  a possession 
of  the  United  States  after  the  Spanish-American  War  (1898). 
It  is  nearly  three  times  the  size  of  Rhode  Island  and  has  over  a 
million  people.  It  is  largely  self-governing  and  sends  a com- 
missioner to  the  United  States  Congress.  About  two-thirds  of 
the  Porto  Rican  people  are  white  and  one-third  colored.  Sugar  is 
the  big  crop  and  forms  two-thirds  of  the  value  of  all  exports. 
Coffee,  tobacco,  and  pineapples  are  also  characteristic  products. 
There  is  little  manufacturing  or  mining,  but  the  foreign  trade  is 
very  large  per  capita. 

The  Virgin  Islands.  — Near  Porto  Rico  are  three  small  islands 
called  the  Virgin  Islands,  purchased  by  the  United  States  from 


FIG,  308 


LATIN  AMERICA 


439 


Denmark  in  1916  for  $25,000,000.  They  are  unimportant  ex- 
cept as  they  may  strengthen  our  naval  position  in  the  Caribbean. 

The  Lesser  Antilles.  — These  belong  to  various  European 
powers,  especially  Great  Britain  and  France.  They  were  once 
important  producers  of  sugar ; now  they  yield  various  tropical 
products,  such  as  cacao,  coffee,  and  coconuts,  but  they  are  less 
valuable  as  colonies  than  they  were  formerly.  The  island  of 
Trinidad,  a British  colony  near  the  coast  of  South  America,  has 
an  asphalt  lake  which  is  one  of  the  chief  sources  of  our  natural 
asphalt. 

The  Bahamas  are  a group  of  coral  islands  belonging  to  Great 
Britain  not  far  from  the  coast  of  Florida. 

On  the  map  (Fig.  304)  locate  all  of  the  countries  and  islands 
named  above. 


SOUTH  AMERICA 

The  Outstanding  Physical  Features 

1.  An  Exceptionally  Regular  Coast  Line.  — South  America 
has  an  unusually  regular  coast  line ; there  are  no  peninsulas  of 
note  and  no  large  indentations.  Only  the  coast  of  southern  Chile 
is  irregular ; this  section  has  fiords  and  many  islands,  resembling 
the  coast  of  southern  Alaska.  There  are  almost  no  good  harbors 
on  the  west  coast  except  in  the  southern  half  of  Chile.  On  the 
whole,  eastern  South  America  has  sufficient  natural  harbors  for 
its  commercial  needs,  but  the  harbors  on  the  west  coast  are  so 
open  to  the  sea  that  they  give  little  protection  to  ships  in  times 
of  storm. 

2.  The  Andes  Mountains.  — This  mountain  system,  studded 
with  active  volcanoes,  is  one  of  the  most  lofty  mountain  barriers 
in  the  world.  It  is  made  up  of  two  or  three  main  ranges  broad- 
ening into  an  extensive  plateau  in  Bolivia.  Its  highest  peaks 
exceed  20,000  feet,  and  for  the  greater  part  of  its  length  the  low- 
est passes  are  between  two  and  three  miles  above  sea  level.  This 
frowning  mountain  wall,  rising  from  the  very  edge  of  the  conti- 
nent and  traversing  its  entire  length,  is  one  of  the  most  difficult 
of  the  great  mountain  systems  of  the  world  for  roads  and 


440 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


railroads  to  cross.  This  barrier  acts  as  a powerful  influence  in 
retarding  the  development  of  the  countries  on  the  west  coast, 
especially  those  north  of  Chile. 

3.  The  Northern  and  Eastern  Mountains.  — These  are  much 
older  and  much  more  worn  down  by  the  agents  of  waste  than 
are  the  Andes.  In  southeastern  Brazil  they  rise  from  near  the 
water’s  edge  to  a height  of  2000  feet  and  more.  Their  height 
somewhat  offsets  the  tropical  heat  and  improves  the  climate  of 
this  part  of  Brazil.  The  great  coffee  plantations  are  on  the 
plateau  back  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Santos. 

4.  The  Three  Great  River  Basins.  — The  largest  of  these,  the 
Amazon,  has  already  been  described  (page  150).  The  Orinoco, 
mainly  within  the  boundaries  of  Venezuela,  is  navigated  for  a 
few  hundred  miles  ; the  broad  grassy  plains,  called  llanos,  on  either 
side  form  natural  pasture  lands,  but  they  are  only  partially  uti- 
lized. The  group  of  rivers  which  unite  to  form  the  Rio  de  la  Plata 
is  nearly  as  important  as  the  Amazon  system ; these  include  the 
Parana,  the  Paraguay,  and  the  Uruguay.  Both  the  Amazon  and 
the  Rio  de  la  Plata  systems  are  more  used  for  navigation  than  are 
rivers  in  the  United  States ; this  is  partly  due  to  the  fact  that 
railroads  are  much  less  common  in  South  America. 

Summary  of  the  Surface  Features 

(1)  An  exceptionally  regular  coast  line;  (2)  a lofty  mountain 
wall  forming  an  effective  barrier  along  the  entire  west  coast ; 
(3)  a vast  extent  of  swampy,  jungle-covered  plains  forming  the 
Amazon  basin ; (4)  extensive  grassy  plains  in  Venezuela  and 

southern  Brazil,  and  more  important  ones  in  Uruguay  and  Argen- 
tina; (5)  large  areas  of  worn-down  mountains  in  eastern  Brazil, 
important  in  their  effect  upon  temperature  and  upon  the  coffee 
industry ; (6)  three  great  river  systems,  two  of  which  are  much 
used  for  navigation. 

South  America  Contrasted  with  North  America 

1.  Size.  — The  difference  in  size  is  not  particularly  impor- 
tant, although  North  America  is  about  15  per  cent  larger 
than  its  southern  neighbor. 


LATIN  AMERICA 


441 


2.  Situation.  — The  difference  in  situation  is  of  utmost  impor- 
tance for  most  of  North  America  is  in  the  temperate  zone,  while 
about  three-fourths  of  South  America  is  in  the  torrid  zone. 


Fig.  310.  — Forest  regions  of  South  America.  ( Zon , in  Geographical  Review.) 

3.  Climate.  — The  difference  in  climate  is  very  marked.  In  the 
torrid  zone  changes  of  seasons  are  less  important  than  in  the  tern- 


442 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


perate  zone.  The  hot,  sultry  climate  of  the  tropical  lowlands 
robs  men  of  their  energy,  makes  work  irksome,  and  retards  prog- 
ress generally.  All  of  the  great  nations  of  the  world  are  in  the 
temperate  zones,  none  in  the  torrid.  The  southern  quarter  of 
South  America  is  in  the  temperate  zone  and  this  region  is  advanc- 
ing more  rapidly  than  the  rest  of  the  continent. 

4.  Productions.  — In  this  particular  the  two  continents  natu- 
rally differ  a great  deal.  The  larger  part  of  South  America  is 
tropical,  and  here  the  commercial  products  are  mainly  coffee, 
rubber,  cacao,  sugar  cane,  and  cotton.  The  temperate  portion 
of  the  continent  yields  the  same  crops  as  the  United  States. 

The  mineral  products,  of  course,  have  no  connection  with  the 
climate.  The  greatest  difference  in  this  respect  is  in  the  coal 
resources  of  the  two  continents.  North  America  is  the  richest 
and  South  America  the  poorest  in  coal.  Brazil  has  large  iron  ore 
resources  and  a small  amount  of  iron  is  mined  in  Chile,  but  the 
total  iron  ore  production  of  the  continent  is  insignificant.  Al- 
though mining  is  a leading  industry  in  the  Andean  region  the  total 
output  of  minerals  of  all  South  America  is  not  10  per  cent  of  the 
output  of  the  United  States. 

5.  People.  — If  we  include  only  the  people  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada  in  North  America,  then  the  difference  between  the 
two  continents  is  very  marked.  The  people  of  Mexico  and  Cen- 
tral America  are  similar  to  those  of  tropical  South  America. 
In  the  countries  of  the  west  coast  the  vast  majority  of  the  people 
are  Indians  or  mestizos.  In  the  Caribbean  countries  and  tropical 
Brazil,  negroes,  Indians,  and  mixed  races  constitute  a majority. 
Only  in  two  South  American  countries,  namely,  Argentina  and 
Uruguay,  do  white  people  predominate  in  numbers. 

6.  Government.  — In  both  continents  republics  are  the  rule, 
yet  there  are  wide  differences  among  republics.  Argentina, 
Brazil,  and  Chile  have  maintained  stable  governments  for  a long 
time.  The  other  countries  have  had  more  or  less  frequent  rev- 
olutions and  their  governments  are  none  too  stable.  Education 
for  the  common  people  is  in  a backward  state.  In  quality  of 
government  and  in  general  welfare  the  best  South  American  coun- 


LATIN  AMERICA 


443 


tries  are  behind  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  the  other 
countries  are  very  far  behind.  Bad  government  deters  men  from 
investing  their  capital  in  mines,  railroads,  or  factories,  and  so 
retards  business  development.  This  is  a serious  drawback  in 
several  countries,  but  the  condition  is  gradually  improving. 


Fig.  311.  — Approximate  population  of  each  of  the  South  American  countries. 

7.  General  Development.  — The  conditions  in  North  America 
are  far  in  advance ; in  only  a few  parts  of  South  America  has  rail- 
road building  made  much  headway,  and  good  roads  are  scarce. 
Less  manufacturing  is  done  in  all  South  America  than  is  done  in 


444 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Illinois.  Though  mining  is  an  important  industry  in  the  Andes, 
the  total  mineral  output  ot'  the  continent  does  not  equal  in  value 
the  output  of  coal  from  the  mines  of  Pennsylvania  alone.  More 
money  is  expended  on  education  in  New  York  State  than  in  all 
the  countries  of  South  America  combined. 

Countries  Bordering  the  Caribbean 

The  Caribbean  countries  are  Colombia  and  Venezuela,  and  we 
might  add  the  three  colonies,  British  Guiana,  French  Guiana, 
and  Dutch  Guiana,  though  they  are  somewhat  east  of  the  Carib- 
bean. All  are  tropical  and  backward  (Fig.  311).  Colombia 
and  Venezuela  have  been  retarded  by  frequent  revolutions  and 
a prevailing  instability  of  government. 

Colombia.  — This  country  is  larger  than  France  and  Germany 
combined.  It  formerly  included  Panama,  which  in  1903  became 
an  independent  republic.  The  tropical  heat  is  intense  in  the  low- 
lands, and  so  the  greater  part  of  the  white  people  live  in  the  high- 
lands several  thousand  feet  above  the  sea  level.  Bogota,  the  cap- 
ital, is  situated  far  inland  at  an  elevation  of  over  8000  feet.  Less 
than  10  per  cent  of  the  people  are  pure  whites,  but  these  form  the 
educated,  well-to-do,  governing  class.  Half  of  the  country  is 
tropical  jungle  belonging  to  the  Amazon  basin  and  is  sparsely  in- 
habited by  Indian  tribes.  The  Magdalena  River,  navigated  by 
river  steamers,  is  the  chief  route,  but  a slow  one,  into  the  interior. 
Links  of  railroad  connect  navigable  parts  of  the  Magdalena  and 
extend  to  Bogota ; one  railway  also  connects  with  the  Pacific 
coast.  In  all,  the  country  has  700  miles  of  railway,  but  only  a 
few  roads  for  wheeled  vehicles.  Trails,  followed  by  pack  animals, 
are  the  chief  highways.  There  are  banana,  sugar,  cacao,  and  cof- 
fee plantations,  but  only  a small  fraction  of  the  country  produces 
commercial  crops.  Coffee  is  by  far  the  most  important  product, 
forming  50  per  cent  of  the  total  exports  of  the  country.  Ivory 
nuts,  emeralds,  platinum,  cattle,  and  gold  form  exports  of  con- 
siderable value.  There  are  about  5,000,000  people  in  the  coun- 
try, the  majority  of  whom  carry  on  agriculture  to  the  extent  of 


LATIN  AMERICA 


445 


supplying  their  simple  needs  and  providing  a limited  amount  for 
export  . Though  Colombia  is  the  largest  gold  producer  among  South 
American  countries,  its  annual  output  reaches  only  6 or  7 million 
dollars.  Colombia  is  one  of  the  two  countries  that  produce 


Fig.  312.  — Digging  asphalt  from  the  surface  of  the  asphalt  lake  in  the  island  of 
Trinidad.  (©  Pub.  Photo.  Service.) 

most  of  the  world’s  platinum,  though  Colombia’s  part  is  only  6 
per  cent  against  Russia’s  former  93  per  cent ; it  is  also  the  chief 
producer  of  emeralds.  Iron  and  coal  exist  but  are  mined  very 
slightly.  The  value  of  the  coffee  produced  is  much  greater 
than  that  of  all  the  minerals  combined.  There  is  but  little  man- 
ufacturing, and  the  total  foreign  trade  is  only  about  one-tenth 
that  of  Cuba. 

Venezuela.  — This  unfortunate,  misgoverned  country  has  more 
than  three  times  the  area  of  the  British  Isles  and  has  a popula- 


446 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


tion  under  3,000,000,  less  than  10  per  cent  of  whom  are 
whites.  The  colored  people  include  negroes,  Indians,  and  mixed 
races.  Repeated  revolutions  with  much  destruction  of  property 
have  occurred.  The  country  has  extensive  areas  of  grazing  lands, 
but  the  cattle  industry  has  been  retarded  by  the  many  internal 
wars.  The  most  important  crop  is  coffee,  grown  on  hundreds  of 
plantations  and  making  up  more  than  half  of  the  total  exports 
of  the  country.  A little  gold  and  copper  is  mined  and  a little 
petroleum  and  asphalt  is  produced,  but  the  mineral  output  is 
small  (Fig.  312).  There  is  no  manufacturing  of  note.  The  total 
railroad  mileage  is  600  to  700  miles  and  there  are  almost  no 
roads  except  trails.  Both  the  producing  and  the  consuming  power 
of  the  country  is  small,  hence  the  foreign  trade  is  small.  Both 
Colombia  and  Venezuela  carry  on  the  larger  part  of  their  trade 
with  the  United  States. 

The  Guianas.  — These  three  tropical  colonies  belong  respec- 
tively to  Great  Britain,  Holland,  and  France.  Only  a very  small 
fraction  of  the  people  are  white.  British  Guiana  is  the  most 
prosperous,  yet  only  one  acre  in  three  hundred  of  the  land  is  cul- 
tivated ; the  population  is  near  the  coast ; the  interior  is  tropical 
jungle  with  some  grassland.  Sugar  cane  and  rice  are  the  only 
crops  of  importance.  Dutch  Guiana  once  belonged  to  Great 
Britain ; in  1667  it  was  traded  to  Holland  for  New  Amsterdam, 
now  New  York.  The  total  population  of  Dutch  Guiana  is  scarcely 
100,000,  more  than  half  of  whom  live  in  or  near  the  capital, 
Paramaribo.  French  Guiana  is  the  least  important  of  the  three 
colonies ; its  total  population  is  around  50,000. 

The  West  Coast  of  South  America 

Unfavorable  Conditions.  — The  countries  of  the  west  coast, 
north  of  Chile,  are  seriously  handicapped  by  five  unfavorable 
conditions : 

1.  As  already  pointed  out,  each  is  traversed  by  a lofty  and  un- 
broken mountain  system.  There  is  only  a narrow  coastal  plain, 
and  such  lowland  as  does  exist  between  the  sea  and  the  mountains 
in  Colombia  and  Ecuador  is  hot  and  unhealthful. 


LATIN  AMERICA 


447 


2.  The  people  must  choose  between  living  near  the  coast  in 
a tropical  lowland  and  going  up  among  the  mountains,  where  the 
temperature  is  moderate  but  where  other  conditions  are  unfa- 
vorable for  carrying  on  various  industries.  There  is  little  agri- 
cultural land.  The  roads  are  merely  trails  or  mule  paths.  Rail- 
roads are  few  and  very  costly  to  build  and  maintain.  Not  as  much 
manufacturing  is  done  in  the  five  Andean  countries  as  is  done  in 
a city  like  Cleveland.  Most  of  the  industries  that  do  exist  are 
conducted  on  a small  scale ; mining  is  a partial  exception  to  this. 

3.  From  Peru  to  central  Chile  (2000  miles)  the  rainfall 
is  so  light  on  the  Pacific  side  of  the  mountains  that  the  country 
is  a desert,  while  in  eastern  Peru  and  Bolivia  the  rainfall  is  so 
heavy  that  dense  tropical  jungles  cover  the  mountain  slopes  and 
plains.  The  total  agricultural  exports  from  Colombia,  Ecuador, 
Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Chile  do  not  equal  the  productions  of  a single 
one  of  our  good  farming  states,  such  as  Ohio  or  Illinois. 

4.  Only  a small  proportion  (less  than  10  per  cent)  of  the  peo- 
ple are  pure  whites.  As  a rule  this  white  population  (mostly  of 
Spanish  descent)  has  the  education,  holds  the  offices,  and  owns 
most  of  the  property ; while  a large  majority  of  the  lower  classes 
are  in  a state  of  poverty  and  ignorance  and  many  are  peons  or 
near-slaves. 

5.  The  governments  have  been  unstable,  revolutions  have  been 
frequent,  and  popular  education  is  neglected  ; the  men  of  the  rul- 
ing class  have  not  had  the  sort  of  training  that  fits  them  to  carry 
on  large  enterprises ; and  so  mining,  railroad  building,  and  most 
other  lines  of  development  on  a large  scale  have  been  accom- 
plished by  Americans  and  Europeans. 

Mineral  Resources.  — Peru  and  Chile  have  the  largest  cop- 
per mines  in  South  America ; Bolivia  is  the  only  important  source 
of  tin  in  either  America ; most  of  the  Andean  countries  produce 
silver,  Peru  being  the  leader.  In  the  desert  of  northern  Chile  are 
the  largest  deposits  of  nitrate  (nitrate  of  soda)  in  the  world.  In 
fact  Chile  furnishes  the  world’s  supply  of  this  salt.  It  is  found 
in  beds  at  or  near  the  surface  of  the  ground ; it  is  loosened  by  the 
use  of  explosives,  is  purified  by  dissolving  out  the  nitrate  and  re- 


448 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


moving  the  earthy  matter,  is  bagged,  shipped  to  the  coast,  and 
exported.  In  peace  times  it  is  mainly  used  for  fertilizer  and  in 
war  times  for  the  manufacture  of  explosives.  These  nitrate  beds 
are  the  richest  known  mineral  deposits  in  South  America,  and 


Fig.  313.  — Sacking  nitrate  in  Chile.  (©  Keystone  View  Co.) 

the  export  tax  collected  on  them  supplies  the  chief  source  of 
income  for  the  Chilean  government  (Fig.  313).  Off  the  coast  of 
Peru  are  islands  upon  which  were  enormous  deposits  of  guano, 
the  exports  of  which  during  forty  years  were  valued  at  over 
$400,000,000.  This  valuable  fertilizer  is  still  exported,  but  in  re- 
stricted quantities. 

Chile  mines  a small  amount  of  iron  ore,  and  has  the  only  coal 
mines  of  importance  in  South  America.  No  other  country  in 
South  America  mines  any  coal  for  export,  and  even  Chile  imports 
more  than  it  exports.  Coal  is  reported  to  exist  in  Colombia  and  a 


LATIN  AMERICA 


449 


poor  variety  in  Brazil ; a small  amount  is  mined  in  Peru  and  is 
mostly  used  by  the  copper  smelters  near  by.  One  of  the  great 
drawbacks  to  the  development  of  South  America  is  this  lack  of 
coal.  The  railroads  and  manufacturing  plants  are  largely  de- 
pendent upon  imported  coal,  which  has  become  very  costly. 

The  amount  of  gold  and  silver  taken  from  western  South  Amer- 
ica by  the  Spanish  conquerors  amounted  to  hundreds  of  millions 
of  dollars;  in  fact,  the  Spaniards  directed  their  efforts  mainly  to 
mining  the  precious  metals.  They  did  little  to  develop  the  colo- 
nies or  to  improve  the  Indians,  whom  they  treated  with  cruelty 
unbelievable. 

Lest  an  incorrect  impression  of  the  mineral  production  of  South 
America  be  given,  it  may  be  pointed  out  that  the  annual  output 
of  gold  in  all  South  America  is  less  than  that  of  Cripple  Creek, 
Col. ; of  copper,  is  less  than  that  of  any  one  of  our  leading  five 
districts;  of  silver,  tin,  iron,  coal,  and  all  other  minerals,  includ- 
ing nitrate,  is  less  than  the  value  of  the  iron  ore  mined  in  the 
Mesabi  Range  in  Minnesota. 

Agriculture.  — In  western  South  America,  as  in  nearly  all  coun- 
tries which  are  in  the  early  stages  of  development,  agriculture 
and  stock  raising  are  the  chief  occupations  of  the  people.  The 
countries  are  so  mountainous  and  means  of  transportation  are 
so  imperfect  that  the  majority  of  the  communities  produce  little 
more  than  enough  for  their  own  needs.  Cacao  beans,  from  which 
chocolate  is  made,  form  the  chief  export  of  Ecuador.  A small 
part  of  the  coast  land  of  Peru  is  irrigated  and  produces  abun- 
dantly. Plantation  agriculture  is  here  practiced,  mainly  with  for- 
eign capital.  There  are  large  sugar  and  cotton  plantations ; the 
value  of  the  sugar  exported  is  greater  than  that  of  all  other  Pe- 
ruvian food  crops  (Fig.  314).  These  are  about  the  only  coast 
lands  from  Panama  to  central  Chile  where  agriculture  really 
thrives,  and  here  it  is  due  to  irrigation ; for  nearly  2000  miles 
this  coast  is  practically  desert. 

Such  grazing  animals  as  the  llama,  alpaca,  and  sheep  are  raised 
in  the  highlands  and  a part  of  the  wool  gets  into  international 
trade.  The  mountain  lands  produce  little  more  food  than  the 


450 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


natives  require.  The 
vast  majority  of  the 
natives  are  wholly 
ignorant  of  modern 
methods  of  agricul- 
ture. 

Nothing  need  be 
said  of  agriculture  in 
Bolivia,  where  less 
than  six  per  cent  of 
the  people  are  whites. 
The  northern  third  of 
Chile  is  a desert  and 
the  southern  third  is 
made  up  of  forested 
or  snow-covered 
mountains.  The  cen- 
tral third  includes  the 
Vale  of  Chile,  a beau- 
tiful valley  much  like 
that  of  California. 
Here  agriculture  is 
carried  on  by  modern 
methods.  All  of  the 
crops  of  the  middle 
temperate  zone  are 
raised,  and  several 
million  bushels  of 
cereals  (wheat,  oats, 
barley)  are  exported 
yearly.  This  valley 


Fig.  314.  — Irrigated  areas  along  the  coast  of  Peru. 

The  greater  part  of  the  agricultural  exports  of  Peru 
come  from  these  irrigated  lands.  (Andes  of  South- 
ern Peru , 1916,  Amer.  Geogr.  Soc.) 

and  the  irrigated  patches  in  Peru  are  the  only  agricultural  lands 
on  the  west  coast  that  deserve  mention. 

Transportation.  — Roads  for  wheeled  vehicles  are  very  rare 
in  these  countries  except  in  the  valley  of  Chile.  A winding 
railroad  climbs  up  from  the  port  of  Guayaquil  to  Quito,  the  cap- 


LATIN  AMERICA 


451 


ital  of  Ecuador.  Peru  has  two  lines  connecting  the  coast  with  the 
interior,  and  also  a number  of  short  lines,  a total  of  nearly  2000 
miles.  Bolivia  is  penetrated  by  a railroad  from  Peru  and  two 
from  Chile,  and  another  from  Argentina  enters  from  the  south. 
Chile  is  reasonably  well  supplied  with  railways,  particularly  in 
the  central  section.  The  only  railroad  in  South  America  which 
entirely  crosses  the  Andes  is  the  one  from  Valparaiso  in  Chile  to 
Buenos  Aires  in  Argentina,  known  as  the  Transandine.  Taken 
as  a whole,  western  South  America  is  highly  unfavorable  to 
the  building  of  good  roads  and  railroads,  and,  as  already  pointed 
out,  this  is  one  of  the  serious  hindrances  to  the  progress  of  these 
countries. 

Foreign  Trade.  — From  what  has  been  said  it  is  evident  that 
with  the  exception  of  a limited  number  of  products  the  west  coast 
produces  relatively  little  for  export.  Minerals,  especially  nitrate 
and  copper  from  Chile,  tin  from  Bolivia,  and  copper  and  petro- 
leum from  Peru  constitute  the  important  items.  Cacao  from 
Ecuador  and  sugar  and  cotton  from  the  irrigated  lands  of  Peru 
deserve  mention. 

On  the  side  of  imports  the  trade  is  relatively  small  but  is  in- 
creasing (Fig.  315).  Moreover  the  country  people,  most  of  whom 
are  Indians  or  mestizos,  live  so  simply  that  they  require  fewr  im- 
ported goods  (Fig.  303).  A large  part  of  the  coal,  machinery, 
cloth,  shoes,  and  other  manufactured  goods  now  come  from  the 
United  States,  which  is  also  the  largest  purchaser  of  the  exports. 

Cities.  — Judged  by  our  standard  western  South  America 
has  no  large  cities.  Each  country  except  Bolivia  has  ports  at 
which  steamships  stop.  Guayaquil,  the  principal  port  of  Ecua- 
dor, has  been  one  of  the  most  unhealthful  on  the  whole  coast  and 
was  avoided  until  recent  improvements  were  made.  Quito,  the 
capital  of  Ecuador,  is  situated  9000  feet  above  the  sea  and  nearly 
on  the  equator.  Its  temperature  is  said  to  be  that  of  perpetual 
spring.  The  chief  city  of  Peru  is  Lima,  one  of  the  oldest  cities 
in  the  western  hemisphere.  Bolivia  has  no  city  of  prominence. 
La  Paz,  the  capital,  is  at  an  elevation  of  11,000  feet.  In  northern 
Chile  are  several  ports  from  which  nitrate  is  shipped ; the  largest 


452 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


are  Iquique  and  Antofagasta.  The  chief  port  of  Chile  is  Valpa- 
raiso, and  the  chief  city  is  Santiago,  the  capital,  a city  of  great 
natural  beauty  and  the  largest  South  American  city  west  of  the 


Fig.  315.  — Diagram  showing  the  growth  of  exports  from  the  eastern  United  States 
to  western  South  America  following  the  opening  of  the  Panama  Canal.  A 
considerable  part  of  the  increase  was  due  to  higher  prices. 

Andes.  Santiago  has  a population  of  somewhat  over  400,000,  or 
about  that  of  New  Orleans. 

Argentina 

General  Conditions.  — By  many  people  Argentina  is  consid- 
ered to  be  the  leading  country  of  South  America.  It  lies  in  the 


LATIN  AMERICA 


453 


temperate  zone ; it  is  inhabited  almost  solely  by  people  of  Euro- 
pean stock ; it  has  extensive  areas  of  excellent  agricultural  and 
grazing  land,  producing  a large  surplus  for  export  ; it  has  thou- 
sands of  miles  of  railroads  (23,000  miles  in  1921),  mainly  built  with 


Fig.  316.  — Hauling  wheat  to  the  railroad  in  Argentina.  The  ponderous  carts 
carry  4 to  8 tons  and  are  drawn  by  8 to  10  oxen  or  horses.  (©  Keystone  View  Co.) 


British  capital ; it  has  maintained  a stable  government  for  many 
years,  and  foreign  investments  are  regarded  as  safe.  There  are 
able  men  in  the  country,  and  the  per  capita  wealth  is  high.  Prior 
to  the  World  War  of  1914—18,  Argentina  was  receiving  annually 
large  numbers  of  European  immigrants,  especially  Italian  and 
Spanish.  During  the  World  War  and  for  several  years  after,  con- 
ditions were  unfavorable,  first  because  of  the  lack  of  ships  to 
handle  the  country’s  commerce,  and  later  because  of  financial 
depression  and  reduced  prices. 

Agriculture  and  Stock  Raising.  — Argentina  has  two  great  in- 
dustries, agriculture  and  stock  raising.  Twenty  or  thirty  years  ago 
stock  raising  (sheep  and  cattle)  was  the  more  important  branch ; 
now  agriculture  is  the  more  important.  The  greater  part  of 
the  country  is  made  up  of  vast  plains  called  ’pampas,  al- 
most as  level  as  the  sea  (Fig.  316).  Many  of  the  farms  or 
estates  comprise  tens  of  thousands  of  acres.  In  the  east,  where 


454 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


the  rainfall  is  most  favorable,  the  plains  produce  great  crops  of 
corn,  wheat,  flax,  oats,  and  alfalfa;  however,  droughts  are  fre- 
quent and  crop  failures  are  serious.  The  locusts  are  terrible 
pests ; they  invade  the  country  in  clouds  and  destroy  every  green 


Fig.  317.  — The  flax-growing  region  of  Argentina.  ( U . S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


thing  in  their  path.  In  the  year  1917—18  one-third  of  the  wheat, 
two-thirds  of  the  flax,  one-third  of  the  oats,  and  nearly  one-half 
of  the  corn  were  lost  on  account  of  locusts  and  drought.  The 
southern  third  of  the  country  and  a strip  near  the  mountains  in 
the  west  are  too  dry  for  most  crops,  though  suited  to  sheep  raising. 
More  than  one-half  of  Argentina  suffers  from  insufficient  rainfall. 

Near  the  base  of  the  Andes,  around  Mendoza,  are  irrigated 
vineyards  and  orchards ; in  fact,  the  grape  industry  there  is  com- 
parable to  that  in  California.  Near  Tucuman,  in  the  northwest, 
is  an  area  devoted  to  sugar  cane,  making  Argentina  practically 
self-sufficient  in  sugar. 

Tens  of  millions  of  cattle  and  sheep  and  millions  of  hogs,  goats, 
and  horses  are  raised ; and  in  the  semi-arid  parts,  live  stock,  and 
especially  sheep,  must  continue  to  be  the  main  source  of  income. 


LATIN  AMERICA 


455 


Foreign  Trade.  — In  proportion  to  population  Argentina  has 
a very  large  foreign  trade ; in  fact,  it  is  one  of  the  leading  nations 
of  the  world  in  per  capita  foreign  trade.  The  country  produces 
so  much  and  the  population  is  still  so  small  (8,000,000)  that  there 
is  a great  surplus  of  products 
to  sell  abroad.  This  makes 
it  possible  also  to  buy  large 
quantities  of  imported  goods. 

Unfortunately,  the  country 
produces  no  coal  or  iron  and 
scarcely  any  other  mineral  of 
importance,  therefore  it  cannot 
make  notable  progress  in  man- 
ufacturing ; consequently  coal 
and  a large  proportion  of 
manufactures  must  be  im- 
ported. With  the  great  ex- 
portation of  wheat,  corn, 
hides,  skins,  meat,  wool,  and 
flaxseed,  and  the  large  im- 
port of  mineral  products  and 
manufactures,  the  foreign  Fig.  318.  _ The  principal  wheat.growing 
trade  is  necessarily  large,  areas  of  South  America.  Each  dot  rep- 
reaching a billion  dollars  a rfei?ts  100'000  bu-  s~  Dept  of 

year,  or  more  than  $100  per 

capita  of  the  population  ; this  is  larger  than  the  normal  per  capita 
trade  of  the  United  States.  We  import  wool,  hides,  flaxseed, 
and  varying  amounts  of  other  products  from  Argentina,  and  sell 
her  coal,  petroleum,  and  all  kinds  of  manufactures. 

Future  of  Argentina.  — The  country  has  excellent  prospects 
because  of  the  temperate  climate,  large  area  of  level  agricul- 
tural land,  almost  exclusively  white  population,  rapidly  increasing 
wealth,  and  increasingly  strong  government.  It  must  always  be 
an  agricultural  and  stock  raising  country  because  of  the  absence 
of  minerals ; yet  the  manufacture  of  dairy  products,  wines,  flour, 
tanning  extracts,  meat  products,  and  leather  is  growing  rapidly. 


456 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  319.  — Distribution  of  cattle  in  Argentina,  Uruguay,  and  Chile. 
( U . S.  Dept,  of  Apr.) 


LATIN  AMERICA 


457 


Uruguay  and  Paraguay 

Uruguay  is  about  the  size  of  California  and  has  a population  of 
2,000,000,  or  less  than  that  of  Chicago.  The  people  are  nearly 
all  whites  and  the  country  is  prosperous  despite  prolonged  politi- 
cal turmoil.  It  is  a country  of  only  one  great  industry,  stock 


Fig.  320.  — Sheep-raising  in  South  America.  Each  dot  represents  200,000  sheep. 

( V . S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


raising.  Nearly  all  the  land  is  suited  to  pasturage.  The  cli- 
mate is  mild  and  the  rainfall  fairly  abundant  (about  35  inches). 
Sheep  and  cattle  in  great  numbers  graze  all  the  year  round 
(Fig.  320).  Large  meat  packing  houses,  some  of  them  built  by 
Chicago  packers,  are  located  in  Uruguay,  as  well  as  in  Argentina 
and  southern  Brazil. 

Uruguay  has  no  mineral  or  forest  resources  of  any  consequence, 
does  very  little  manufacturing,  but  has,  like  Argentina,  a large 
foreign  trade  in  proportion  to  its  population.  It  exports  meat, 
wool,  hides,  and  sheepskins,  all  products  of  the  live  stock  indus- 


458 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


try.  The  imports  are  mainly  manufactured  goods.  For  a small 
country  Uruguay  seems  to  have  a promising  future. 

Paraguay  is  quite  the  opposite  of  Uruguay.  Its  people  are  nearly 
all  Indians ; a large  part  of  the  country  is  jungle ; neither  farm- 
ing nor  stock  raising  is  carried  on  beyond  supplying  the  simple 
needs  of  the  simple  people.  One  crop  of  importance  is  grown 
and  exported,  yerba  mate , or  Paraguay  tea.  When  steeped,  it 
makes  a pleasant,  mildly  stimulating  drink,  said  to  have  no  bad 
effects  upon  the  user.  Oranges  grow  wild  in  Paraguay  and  are 
so  common  that  they  are  fed  to  hogs.  The  country  has  no  sea- 
coast,  has  made  little  progress,  and  seems  to  have  little  promise 
for  the  immediate  future. 

Brazil 

General  Conditions.  — Brazil  is  the  giant  of  South  America; 
it  is  larger  than  the  United  States  proper,  has  three  times  the 
population  of  any  other  South  American  country,  and  has  great 
natural  wealth  and  a great  variety  of  resources.  About  half  of 
the  country  is  tropical  jungle,  but  an  area  in  the  east  and  southeast 
four  times  the  size  of  France  or  Germany  is  capable  of  devel- 
oping into  a densely  populated  and  progressive  section.  This 
section  is  hilly  or  mountainous,  but  the  altitude  helps  to  offset 
the  high  temperature  which  would  otherwise  prevail. 

The  Amazon  Forests.  — These  are  among  the  most  impen- 
etrable jungles  known,  and  they  can  scarcely  be  traversed  except 
along  the  river  courses.  The  most  valuable  trees  here  are  the 
rubber  trees,  found  far  up  the  rivers  in  Bolivia,  Peru,  and  Co- 
lombia, as  well  as  in  Brazil.  Until  a short  time  ago  when  the  out- 
put of  plantation  rubber  in  southeastern  Asia  became  so  large, 
Brazil  was  the  world’s  chief  source  of  rubber.  It  is  still  the  chief 
producer  of  the  wild  product,  but  the  Amazon  basin  now  pro- 
vides only  a small  fraction  of  the  world’s  total  supply  of  rubber. 

Coffee.1  — Brazil  has  become  the  world’s  chief  source  of  coffee, 
producing  from  70  to  75  per  cent  of  all  that  is  used  (Fig.  321). 

1 Some  member  of  the  class  should  make  a special  report  on  the  coffee  industry 
of  Brazil. 


LATIN  AMERICA 


459 


The  coffee  tree  thrives  only  in  the  tropics  and  grows  best  on  up- 
lands where  the  soil  contains  quite  a good  deal  of  iron.  The  red 


Fig.  321. — Coffee  tree  loaded  with  ripe  coffee  berries.  Brazil  produces  about 
73  per  cent  of  the  world’s  coffee.  (©  Keystone  View  Co.) 


soil  of  Brazil,  the  low  mountains  not  far  from  the  sea,  the  trop- 
ical sunshine,  and  ample  rainfall  in  this  region  combine  to  make 


460 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


southeastern  Brazil  the  paradise  of  the  coffee  grower.  For  the 
most  part  the  coffee  is  raised  on  plantations  of  large  extent  hav- 
ing thousands  and  even  millions  of  trees  each ; one  has  over 
20,000,000  trees.  Such  plantations  require  a large  investment  of 
capital  and  hundreds  of  laborers.  The  coffee  trees  are  allowed 
to  grow  to  a height  of  ten  or  twelve  feet ; the  coffee  berry  resem- 
bles a red  cherry,  within  which  are  two  coffee  beans.  The  red 
pulp  is  removed  and  the  kernels  are  carefully  cured  in  the  sun ; 
the  coffee  is  then  bagged  and  sent  to  the  shipping  ports,  espe- 
cially to  Santos,  the  greatest  coffee  port  in  the  world  (Fig.  323). 
Rio  de  Janeiro  is  also  an  important  shipping  port.  Coffee  is  the  all- 
important  crop  of  Brazil ; few  countries  are  so  dependent  upon 
a single  crop  as  Brazil  is  upon  coffee.  The  value  of  the  crop  in 
recent  years  has  reached  SI  50,000,000  a year.  Most  of  it  is  raised 
in  a compact  area  back  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Santos  (Fig.  322). 

Other  Productions.  — Brazil  is  one  of  the  largest  producers  of 
cacao  beans,  from  which  chocolate  is  made.  Along  the  coast 
lands  cotton,  sugar,  rice,  and  tobacco  are  raised  in  increasing 
quantities.  Southern  Brazil  raises  millions  of  cattle  on  its  ex- 
tensive areas  of  pasture  land.  Modern  packing  plants  have  been 
established,  mainly  by  American  packers,  and  southern  Brazil, 
along  with  Uruguay  and  northern  Argentina,  is  becoming  one  of 
the  important  sources  of  meat  for  Europe,  and  possibly  in  the 
future  for  the  United  States. 

Mineral  Wealth.  — Brazil  has  some  of  the  most  valuable  iron 
ore  deposits  in  the  world.  Unfortunately,  there  is  no  native  coal 
with  which  to  smelt  the  ore,  which  is  located  somewhat  over  400 
miles  inland.  Brazil  is  one  of  the  three  principal  sources  of  man- 
ganese, a metal  which  is  essential  in  the  making  of  steel.  At  one 
time  there  were  valuable  gold  mines  and  diamond  mines  in  this 
part  of  Brazil,  but  the  gold  is  practically  all  worked  out,  and  the 
diamonds,  chiefly  of  the  black  variety,  are  found  only  in  limited 
numbers.  Though  there  is  considerable  known  mineral  wealth, 
and  doubtless  much  that  is  undiscovered,  the  present  mineral 
industries  of  Brazil  are  not  of  great  importance. 

Transportation.  — Like  all  other  South  American  countries 


LATIN  AMERICA 


461 


Brazil  has  few  good  roads.  In  the  Amazon  basin  the  rivers  form 
the  routes  of  transportation,  especially  for  bringing  out  the  rubber 
and  for  distributing  supplies  to  the  rubber  gatherers,  who  are 
mostly  Indians.  Far  up  the  Madeira  River  near  the  boundary 


Fig.  322.  ■ — The  coffee-growing  regions  of  Central  and  South  America.  Each  dot 
represents  5,000,000  pounds.  ( U . S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


of  Bolivia  is  a railroad  around  the  rapids  200  miles  long.  This 
railroad  and  river  form  an  important  route  into  and  out  of  Bo- 
livia. The  coffee  district  has  a network  of  railroads,  and  many 
short  lines  extend  inland  from  various  ports.  There  is  continu- 
ous rail  connection  between  Rio  de  Janeiro  and  Montevideo  and 
Buenos  Aires.  Brazil  has  somewhat  less  than  20,000  miles  of 
railroad,  Argentina  nearly  25,000  miles,  and  the  United  States 
over  260,000  miles. 

Manufactures.  — Nowhere  in  South  America  has  manufactur- 
ing become  really  important.  Brazil  has  made  a good  deal  of 
progress  in  the  making  of  cottons,  shoes,  hats,  tobacco,  flour, 
meat  products,  and  some  other  things ; but  native  coal  is  poor, 


462 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


and  inadequate  in  amount,  and  imported  coal  is  expensive.  Of  the 
great  amount  of  water  power  in  this  country  only  a little  has  been 
developed.  Capital  and  competent  labor  for  extensive  manu- 
facturing are  not  available  within  the  country. 


Fig.  323.  — View  of  Santos,  Brazil,  the  leading  coffee-exporting  port  of  the  world. 
(Pub.  Photo.  Service.) 


Foreign  Trade.  — Among  South  American  countries  Brazil 
has  a total  foreign  trade  second  only  to  that  of  Argentina,  and 
about  one-tenth  that  of  the  United  States.  Of  the  total  export 
trade,  about  one-half  is  coffee  and  one-tenth  is  rubber.  The  people 
of  the  United  States  are  the  greatest  consumers  of  coffee  and  they 
purchase  more  than  half  of  all  that  Brazil  exports.  So  heavy  are 
our  purchases  of  coffee  that  the  value  of  our  exports  to  Brazil 
falls  much  below  that  of  our  imports  from  that  country.  During 


LATIN  AMERICA 


463 


the  World  War  and  since,  Brazil  has  bought  the  larger  part  of  her 
imports  from  the  United  States.  The  peculiar  character  of  the 
foreign  trade  of  Brazil  may  be  seen  in  the  fact  that  nearly  50 
per  cent  of  the  imports  are  manufactured  goods  and  about  SO 
per  cent  of  the  exports  are  agricultural  products. 

Cities  of  Eastern  South  America.  — Buenos  Aires,  the  capital 
and  chief  port  of  Argentina,  is  the  largest  city  in  the  southern 
hemisphere  and  the  largest  Spanish-speaking  city  in  the  world. 
It  has  had  a most  remarkable  growth  and  is  nearing  a popula- 
tion of  2,000,000.  More  than  one-fifth  of  the  people  of  Argen- 
tina live  in  this  single  city.  On  the  map  (Fig.  308)  note  the  loca- 
tion of  Rosario,  Bahia  Blanca,  and  La  Plata,  which  are  impor- 
tant shipping  ports.  Montevideo,  across  the  estuary  of  the  Plata 
from  Buenos  Aires,  is  the  capital  and  chief  port  of  Uruguay  and 
is  a thoroughly  modern,  progressive  city.  Rio  de  Janeiro,  the 
capital  of  Brazil,  is  situated  on  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in  the 
world.  Its  water  front  has  been  improved  at  great  expense  and 
from  the  bay  presents  an  appearance  of  unusual  beauty.  The 
city  has  a population  of  over  1,000,000.  Santos,  the  great  cof- 
fee-shipping port  (Fig.  323),  Sdo  Paulo  in  the  coffee  district, 
Para,  the  rubber-shipping  port  at  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon, 
Manaos,  the  chief  rubber- collecting  center  up  the  Amazon,  Ba- 
hia, and  Pernambuco  are  all  cities  of  more  or  less  importance. 
Locate  them  on  the  map  (Fig.  308). 

Relations  of  the  United  States  to  South  American 
Countries 

The  United  States  and  the  South  American  countries  ought 
to  maintain  close  and  friendly  relations.  The  tropics  produce 
things  which  we  need  in  ever  increasing  quantities ; we  also  need 
the  wool,  hides,  and  flax  of  Argentina,  the  nitrates  of  Chile, 
and  the  tin  of  Bolivia.  Some  of  the  largest  mining  operations  in 
the  Andes  are  financed  and  controlled  by  Americans.  Moreover, 
South  America  depends  upon  outside  countries  for  most  of  its 
coal,  petroleum,  machinery,  and  manufactures  of  all  kinds. 
These  we  can  supply  and  ought  to  supply  as  we  are  now  doing. 


464 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Many  American  banks  have  already  been  established  in  Latin 
America ; we  have  more  ships  under  the  American  flag  prepared 
to  serve  our  trade  than  we  ever  had  before,  and  a cordial  feeling 
exists  between  the  United  States  and  most  South  American 
countries. 

The  Latin  Americans  and  the  Anglo-Americans  are  different 
in  their  ways  of  doing  and  thinking ; they  speak  different  languages 
and  have  different  traditions  and  customs.  The  Latin  Ameri- 
cans of  education  and  refinement  are  often  offended  by  the  ag- 
gressiveness and  informality  of  North  Americans.  Our  hustling 
ways  sometimes  grate  upon  their  sensibilities  and  they  resent  the 
attitude  of  superiority  which  a certain  type  of  American  assumes. 
On  our  side  we  are  likely  to  be  annoyed  at  the  easy-going, 
procrastinating  ways  of  the  Latin  Americans.  Yet  these  dif- 
ferences in  point  of  view  can  be  overcome  by  a display  of  genuine 
good  will.  There  is  still  some  suspicion  of  our  intentions,  for 
some  Latin  Americans  fear  that  our  Monroe  Doctrine  is  only  an 
excuse  for  gaining  an  increasing  political  control  in  Latin  Amer- 
ica. It  is  of  utmost  importance  that  the  United  States  demon- 
strate in  every  possible  way  its  sincere  desire  to  help  its  sister 
republics  for  their  own  benefit  first  of  all ; that  we  convince  them 
by  all  our  actions  that  we  do  not  desire  their  territory  or  desire 
to  gain  any  political  control  over  them. 

During  the  World  War,  nearly  all  of  the  South  American  coun- 
tries arrayed  themselves  on  the  side  of  the  Allies.  As  a result  of 
the  cutting  off  of  trade  with  Germany  and  of  the  necessary  de- 
cline in  trade  with  Great  Britain  our  trade  with  South  Amer- 
ica grew  notably. 

EXERCISE  XXVI 

1.  Why  are  there  no  large  rivers  G.u  the  Pacific  slope  of  South  America? 

2.  Why  is  only  a small  proportion  of  Mexico  suited  to  agriculture? 

3.  Why  is  a country  like  Mexico  likely  to  have  greater  mineral  wealth 
than  one  like  Argentina? 

4.  Why  is  the  position  of  Mexico  better  for  commerce  than  that  of  Chile? 

5.  Why  are  the  forests  of  Central  America  heaviest  on  the  eastern  side? 

6.  Why  are  most  of  the  important  cities  of  Central  America  and  western 
South  America  inland  instead  of  on  the  coast? 


LATIN  AMERICA 


465 


7.  Why  is  agriculture  more  important  in  Argentina  than  in  Chile?  Why 
more  important  in  Chile,  than  in  Bolivia? 

8.  Why  is  the  rubber  industry  of  Brazil  declining  in  relative  importance? 

9.  Why  has  railroad  development  in  Argentina  been  more  rapid  than 
elsewhere  in  South  America? 

10.  Why  is  Argentina  not  likely  to  become  a manufacturing  nation? 

11.  Why  is  the  rainfall  of  the  Amazon  Valley  very  heavy?  Why  light 
in  most  of  Argentina?  Why  heavy  in  southern  Chile? 

12.  Why  is  southern  Argentina  (Patagonia)  better  suited  to  grazing  than 
to  agriculture?  Why  better  suited  to  sheep  than  to  cattle? 

13.  Why  is  water  transportation  employed  more  in  the  Amazon  Valley 
than  in  the  Mississippi  Valley? 

14.  Why  is  eastern  Peru  a jungle  and  western  Peru  a desert? 

15.  Why  is  the  large  size  of  Brazil  less  an  advantage  than  it  might  seem? 

16.  Why  is  southeastern  Brazil  the  most  promising  part  of  that  country? 

17.  Why  is  South  America  more  likely  to  be  an  importer  than  a maker 
of  manufactured  goods? 

18.  Why  must  ore  deposits  in  the  Andean  countries  be  exceptionally  rich 
in  order  to  be  worked  at  a profit? 

19.  Why  are  the  Andean  countries  seriously  handicapped  in  their  develop- 
ment? 

20.  Why  do  foreign  investors  hesitate  to  invest  their  capital  in  several 
of  the  Latin  American  countries? 

21.  Why  did  the  United  States  build  the  Panama  Canal? 

22.  Why  is  Cuba  exceptionally  prosperous? 

23.  Why  is  banana  growing  more  profitable  in  the  Caribbean  region  than 
in  tropical  Africa? 

24.  Why  are  there  few  large  cities  in  South  America? 


CHAPTER  XXII 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE 

Extent.  — T1  le  British  Empire  is  the  largest  in  the  world ; in 
both  area  and  population  it  is  four  times  the  size  of  the  United 
States.  British  India  is  the  most  populous  dependency,  while 
both  Canada  and  Australia  are  as  large  as  the  United  States ; but 
together  they  have  a population  not  much  greater  than  that  of 
New  York  State.  Great  Britain  now  controls  territory  from 
one  end  of  Africa  to  the  other  (Fig.  324).  A surprisingly  large 
number  of  the  most  valuable  points  on  the  great  ocean  routes 
of  trade  are  British ; these  include  Gibraltar,  which  commands 
the  narrow  entrance  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea ; Malta,  near  the 
center  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea;  the  Suez  Canal,  still  the  most 
important  ship  canal  in  the  world ; Aden,  which  commands  the 
southern  entrance  to  the  Red  Sea;  Ceylon,  midway  across  the 
Indian  Ocean ; Singapore,  which  commands  the  narrow  strait 
of  Malakka ; and  Hong  Kong,  off  the  coast  of  China  — a contin- 
uous chain  along  the  most  important  trade  route  from  the  At- 
lantic to  the  Far  East.  In  Central  America  is  British  Hondu- 
ras, a small  tropical  colony.  In  the  West  Indies  are  Jamaica, 
Barbados,  Trinidad,  and  other  islands ; and  in  the  northern 
part  of  South  America  is  British  Guiana.  The  Bahamas,  east 
of  Florida,  and  the  Bermudas  farther  north  are  also  British.  These 
possessions  give  Great  Britain  a strong  position  in  the  middle 
Atlantic  and  in  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Besides  these  colonies  there 
are,  in  every  sea,  islands  and  groups  of  islands  which  belong  to 
Great  Britain ; no  other  empire  of  such  extent  has  ever  existed. 
The  widely  scattered  possessions  give  an  opportunity  for  coal- 
ing stations  and  naval  stations  in  every  part  of  the  world,  and 
these,  together  with  the  powerful  British  navy,  give  Great  Brit- 

466 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE 


467 


Fig.  324.  — The  British  Empire. 


468 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


ain  the  mastery  of  the  sea  (Fig.  324).  It  has  taken  centuries 
to  acquire  and  cement  this  great  empire. 

The  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 

The  Country  and  the  People.  — The  little  kingdom  with  the 
vast  colonial  empire  that  it  has  acquired  is  the  richest,  most 


Fig.  325.  • — Rainfall  and  prevailing  wind  direction  of  the  British  Isles. 

powerful,  and  most  influential  of  all  European  nations ; yet  Eng- 
land, the  nucleus  of  the  empire,  is  no  larger  than  Alabama.  Many 
factors  have  combined  to  create  this  nation,  a few  of  which  are 
referred  to  here : 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE 


469 


1.  Its  climate  is  mild,  much  milder  than  its  latitude  would 
cause  one  to  expect,  due  to  the  influence  of  the  ocean  and  to 
the  prevailing  westerly  winds.  (See  page  306  and  Fig.  325.)  The 
rainfall  is  ample  for  crops ; the  winters  are  invigorating  and  the 
summers  are  rarely  oppressive. 

2.  Its  insularity,  or  separation  from  the  continent,  has  made 
invasion  by  land  impossible.  No  foreign  war  has  been  fought  on 
English  soil  for  nearly  a thousand  years.  British  agriculture 
and  British  industries  have  never  been  ruined  by  an  invading 
army  as  they  have  been  again  and  again  on  the  continent.  The 
insularity  of  the  nation  has  favored  shipbuilding  and  seaman- 
ship, and  has  given  it  a strong  bent  toward  the  sea,  toward  ocean 
commerce,  and  toward  colonization. 

3.  Its  coast  line  is  remarkably  indented,  affording  an  excep- 
tional number  of  harbors,  mostly  at  river  mouths.  More  than 
twenty  ports  have  a depth  of  at  least  twenty-five  feet  at  high 
water. 

4.  Its  resources  of  coal  and,  iron  have  greatly  aided  in  build- 
ing up  the  manufacturing  industries  and  overseas  trade,  from 
which  British  wealth  is  largely  derived.  Without  these  essential 
minerals,  Great  Britain  would  probably  have  remained  what  it 
was  over  a century  ago,  an  agricultural  nation.  Without  coal 
and  iron  or  easy  access  to  them,  a great  industrial  and  commercial 
nation  is  scarcely  possible. 

5.  Its  position,  at  the  front  door  of  Europe  and  on  the  side 
toward  America,  is  a commanding  one.  France  alone  has  an 
equally  favorable  position  for  ocean  commerce.  Both  nations 
lie  near  the  center  of  the  land  hemisphere. 

6.  Its  government  is  remarkably  liberal  and  adaptable,  con- 
servative enough  and  rigid  enough  to  prevent  hasty  changes,  yet 
always  able  to  change  when  the  need  of  change  is  clear. 

7.  Its  people  have  a genius  for  business,  for  colonization,  and 
for  diplomacy.  The  Englishman  never  knows  when  he  is  beaten 
and,  as  a consequence,  he  has  won  almost  every  great  conflict  in 
which  he  has  engaged.  The  stubbornness  and  persistence  of  the 
British  are  proverbial. 


470 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Thus  does  Britain  combine  in  its  people,  its  country,  and  its 
climate  a remarkable  group  of  advantages  out  of  which  the  power- 
ful nation  has  developed. 


Fig.  326.  — Location  of  the  Chief  Cities  of  the  British  Isles.  (Modified  from  Mark 
Jefferson , Geographical  Review,  1917.) 


The  Status  of  Ireland.  — Early  in  1922,  Ireland,  which  had 


Fiq.  327.  — Coal  in  Great  Britain.  1,  Clackmannan  ; '2,  Fifeshire  ; 3,  Clyde  ; 4,  Lo- 
thians ; 5,  Ayrshire ; 6,  Lesmaha  Co.  ; 7,  Straiton ; 8,  Northumberland  and  Dur- 
ham ; 8a,  Cumberland  ; 9,  Ingleton  ; 10,  Lancashire  ; 11,  Yorkshire  ; 12,  Derbyshire  ; 
13,  Flintshire ; 14,  Denbighshire;  14a,  Anglesey;  15,  North  Staffordshire;  15a, 
Shropshire;  16,  South  Staffordshire;  17,  Warwickshire;  17a,  Leicestershire; 
18,  South  Wales;  18a,  Pembrokeshire;  19,  Forest  of  Dean;  20,  Bristol.  (After 
Edward  Krehbiel,  Geographical  Review,  1916.) 


472 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


long  been  dissatisfied  with  her  relations  to  Great  Britain,  secured 
recognition  as  “The  Free  State  of  Ireland,”  remaining  within  the 
British  Empire  but  being  wholly  self-governing.  The  northern 
part,  known  as  Ulster,  has  its  own  parliament,  separate  from 
the  rest  of  Ireland. 

Resources.  — Minerals.  England,  Scotland,  and  Wales  all 
have  large  deposits  of  coal,  and  the  combined  output  is  second 
only  to  that  of  the  United  States  (Fig.  326).  Several  of  the  coal 
areas  are  close  to  the  sea  (Fig.  328),  making  the  shipment  of  coal 
by  water  very  easy.  The  coal  of  South  Wales  goes  to  most  of 
the  countries  within  5000  miles  that  need  to  import  coal.  The 
British  Empire  is  estimated  to  have  one-fourth  of  the  coal  of  the 
wTorld.  Eighty  per  cent  of  the  value  of  all  minerals  mined  in 
Great  Britain  is  in  coal.  The  iron  mines  have  been  among  the 
largest  producers  in  Europe,  but  .now  they  supply  less  than  half 
the  country’s  needs.  The  famous  tin  mines  of  Cornwall  have 
been  worked  for  upwards  of  two  thousand  years,  but  are  nearly 
exhausted.  With  the  exception  of  clays  and  building  stones  no 
other  minerals  are  produced  in  important  quantities. 

The  fisheries  yield  the  only  food  product  that  the  islands  have 
in  surplus.  The  rather  shallow  waters  which  surround  the  Brit- 
ish Isles  give  rise  to  the  most  important  sea  fisheries  in  the  world. 
This  is  especially  true  of  the  North  Sea.  The  British  fishing 
fleets  constitute  the  training  school  for  British  seamen  and  have 
had  no  small  part  in  making  Great  Britain  the  foremost  mari- 
time power  among  the  nations. 

Soil.  — Products  of  the  soil  have  fallen  to  a secondary  position. 
About  one-fourth  of  the  land  of  the  British  Isles  is  arable ; this 
is  mainly  in  England  and  Ireland;  the  latter  country  being 
mainly  devoted  to  agriculture.  Nowhere  in  Europe  is  the  raising 
of  high-grade  cattle  and  sheep  so  important  as  in  the  British  Isles, 
where  more  sheep  are  raised  than  in  Germany,  Holland,  Belgium, 
and  France  combined  (Fig.  328).  Farming  on  the  high-priced 
land  of  Great  Britain  has  almost  ceased  to  be  profitable,  and  be- 
fore the  World  War  it  had  declined  greatly ; so  dependent  is  Great 
Britain  upon  imported  food  that  the  nation  would  starve  in  three 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE 


473 


months  if  outside  supplies  were  cut  off.  Such  crops  as  are  grown 
are  those  of  the  cool  temperate  zone,  including  wheat  and  other 
cereals,  potatoes,  root  crops,  and  hay;  40  per  cent  of  the  farm 
land  is  used  for  pasturage.  Cultivation  is  much  more  intensive 
than  in  the  United  States  and  the  yield  per  acre  is  much  higher. 


Fig.  328.  - — - Distribution  of  sheep  in  Europe.  ( U . S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 

Industries.  — Five  times  as  many  people  in  Great  Britain  are 
engaged  in  mining  and  manufacturing  as  in  agriculture.  Manu- 
facturing is  especially  concentrated  on  the  coal  fields  (Fig.  327). 
Of  the  many  lines  of  manufacturing,  iron  and  steel  products  (in- 
cluding ships)  rank  first.  The  manufacture  of  textiles,  cotton 
first  and  woolen  second,  is  the  other  great  industry.  The 
raw  cotton  is  all  imported  (most  largely  from  the  United 
States),  and  its  manufacture  is  centered  around  Manchester  in 
the  northwest  of  England.  Britain  was  long  the  greatest  ex- 
porter of  cotton  goods  and  the  greatest  builder  of  ships  in  the 
world.  Besides  the  vast  quantities  of  cotton,  woolen,  and  linen 
goods,  and  the  endless  variety  of  metal  products,  British  mills 


474 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


and  factories  manufacture  almost  everything  else  that  people 
use.  Most  of  the  raw  materials  must  be  imported.  In  manu- 
facturing these  raw  materials  into  finished  products,  millions 
of  working  people  are  employed  and  billions  of  dollars  of  British 
capital  are  invested.  The  manufactured  goods  are  (1)  used  at 
home ; (2)  sold  to  the  British  colonies ; and  (3)  sold  to  foreign 
nations.  Though  the  United  States  is  the  foremost  manufac- 
turing nation,  yet  we  buy  millions  of  dollars’  worth  of  British 
manufactures  every  year.  No  other  nation  is  so  dependent  upon 
manufacturing  and  commerce  as  is  the  United  Kingdom ; around 
these  the  economic  life  of  the  nation  centers,  and  only  by  their 
continuance  can  the  British  people  make  the  money  with  which 
to  buy  the  imported  food  and  materials  that  they  need. 

Commerce.  — The  United  Kingdom  was  until  the  World  War 
the  greatest  of  commercial  nations ; it  now  ranks  second  to  the 
United  States.  Its  merchants  buy  and  sell  in  every  land  and 
its  ships  reach  almost  every  port.  Over  one-third  of  the  sea- 
going ships  of  the  world  fly  the  British  flag,  carrying  not  only 
British  commerce  but  much  of  that  of  the  United  States  and  of 
other  countries.  The  constant  addition  of  colonial  possessions  has 
been  principally  for  commercial  purposes,  and  the  powerful  Brit- 
ish navy  exists  to  protect  that  colonial  empire.  By  owning  these 
many  colonies,  Great  Britain  is  more  sure  of  securing  the  raw 
materials  that  her  manufacturers  require,  and  also  is  more  sure 
of  markets  in  which  to  sell  her  manufactures.  It  is  said  that 
“ Trade  follows  the  flag.”  All  nations  may  sell  goods  to  British 
colonies,  but  many  of  these  colonies  charge  a lower  tariff  on  Brit- 
ish goods  than  on  foreign  goods ; this  is  true  in  Canada  and  in 
the  British  West  Indies ; yet,  partly  because  of  nearness,  the 
United  States  sells  more  of  its  products  in  these  colonies  than 
does  the  mother  country. 

Besides  buying  raw  materials  and  selling  manufactured  goods, 
the  British  carry  on  a very  large  trade  in  other  products,  such 
as  wool,  rubber,  furs,  metals,  etc.,  which  are  produced  in  the  more 
remote  parts  of  the  world,  brought  to  England,  and  reshipped 
to  countries  that  need  them.  For  example,  the  United  States 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE 


475 


buys  considerable  wool,  rubber,  tin,  jute,  and  many  other  articles 
through  London. 

British  imports  exceed  exports  by  hundreds  of  millions  of  dol- 
lars annually.  Formerly  this  unfavorable  balance  of  trade  was 
offset  by  the  income  from  British  investments  in  foreign  coun- 
tries and  by  the  large  earnings  of  British  ships. 

Cities.  — London,  on  the  Thames,  is  the  political  and  financial 
capital  of  the  empire,  the  largest  city,  and  greatest  center  of  trade 
in  the  empire;  it  was  the  world’s  greatest  port  for  200  years  and 
may  be  again  when  the  bad  effects  of  the  World  War  are  more 
fully  corrected.  Greater  London  has  a population  of  about 
7,500,000.  Liverpool,  on  the  west  coast,  is  the  second  commer- 
cial city  of  the  kingdom  and  the  first  in  trade  with  America ; it 
is  connected  by  ship  canal  with  Manchester,  the  center  of  the 
greatest  cotton  manufacturing  district  in  the  world  and  “the  nat- 
ural focus  of  fully  8,000,000  people.”  The  city  of  Oldham  in 
this  district  has  between  twelve  and  fifteen  million  cotton  spin- 
dles. Glasgoiv  on  the  Clyde  in  Scotland,  Newcastle  on  the  Tyne, 
and  Belfast  in  the  north  of  Ireland  are  great  shipbuilding  centers. 
Birmingham,  Sheffield,  and  surrounding  cities  are  iron  and  steel 
centers.  Dublin  is  the  seat  of  government  of  Ireland,  and  Edin- 
burgh of  Scotland.  Hull,  Southampton,  Bristol,  and  Cardiff  are 
other  important  ports.  Locate  each  of  these  cities  (Figs.  325,  348). 

Summary 

1.  The  commercial  and  industrial  greatness  of  the  United  King- 
dom arises  largely  from  four  factors  : 

A.  The  advantageous  situation  of  the  islands  at  the  front  door 
of  Europe  and  on  the  side  nearest  America.  To  its  situation  is  due 
also  the  mild  but  invigorating  climate  without  which  the  British 
character  and  energy  might  not  have  developed. 

B.  Great  Britain’s  insularity  makes  land  invasion  impossible ; 
it  has  saved  British  industries  from  the  ruin  of  war,  which  has  so 
often  prostrated  parts  of  the  continent ; it  has  encouraged  the 
sea  fisheries,  the  building  and  operation  of  ships,  and  the  de- 
velopment of  ocean  commerce. 


476 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


C.  The  great  coal  resources  have  supplied  most  of  the  power 
which  drives  British  machinery  and  British  ships  and  so  have  made 
possible  the  enormous  growth  of  manufacturing  and  commerce 
which  supports  the  nation. 

1).  The  characteristics  of  the  British  people,  and  the  strong, 
liberal  government  which  they  have  evolved,  comprise  the  most 
potent  factor  of  all,  yet  these  are  doubtless  the  outgrowth  of  still 
more  fundamental  causes. 

2.  Great  Britain's  most  notable  achievements  are  in  the  realm 
of  (a)  manufacturing,  (b)  commerce,  (c)  colonization,  and  (cl)  empire 
building.  In  the  latter  two,  the  country  has  no  equal,  and  her 
only  equal  in  the  former  two  is  her  offspring,  the  United  States. 

3.  The  British  Empire  is  the  most  extensive  and  populous  that 
ever  existed,  and  includes  parts  of  every  continent,  islands  in  every 
sea,  and  the  most  strategic  points  in  the  world’s  great  trade  routes. 
To  serve  and  to  defend  this  widely  scattered  empire  the  British 
merchant  fleet  and  the  British  navy  have  been  made  the  largest 
in  the  world. 

4.  Within  the  United  Kingdom  agriculture  declined  in  impor- 
tance during  the  past  century.  The  raising  of  superior  cattle  and 
sheep  is  a prominent  industry ; the  fisheries  are  highly  important 
and  supply  the  only  item  of  food  that  the  nation  produces  in  sur- 
plus. Coal  forms  80  per  cent  of  the  value  of  all  the  minerals 
produced  ; iron  is  a distant  second  in  value.  Iron  and  steel  prod- 
ucts and  cotton,  woolen,  and  linen  goods  are  the  great  lines  of 
manufacturing.  There  are  over  20  excellent  harbors.  Ship- 
building and  the  operation  of  ships  in  the  commerce  of  all  nations 
are  leading  industries.  London  was  for  200  years  the  world’s 
greatest  port,  a position  which  was  lost  to  New  York  during  the 
World  War  and  which  may  or  may  not  be  regained. 

Canada 

Government  and  People.  — For  more  than  200  years  Canada 
was  New  France,  a part  of  the  great  colonial  empire  which  the 
French  kings  ruled  in  America.  Defeated  by  the  English  at 
Quebec,  France  had  to  give  up  this  vast  domain  and  it  became 


FIG.  329 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE 


477 


a British  dependency  in  1763.  A century  later  (1867)  the  vari- 
ous parts  (except  Newfoundland)  were  merged  into  the  Dominion 
of  Canada  with  its  capital  at  Ottawa.  The  people  of  Canada 
have  self-government  in  all  except  foreign  affairs.  The  Domin- 


Fig.  330.  — A logging  scene  in  Canada.  ( Physiography  Lab.  Cornell  Univ.) 


ion  is  larger  than  the  United  States ; it  is  composed  of  ten  prov- 
inces and  the  Northwest  Territories  (Fig.  329) ; the  provinces 
correspond  to  our  states,  but  average  much  larger  in  size : 
Quebec,  for  example,  is  three  times  the  size  of  Texas. 

The  population  (about  9,000,000,  or  less  than  that  of  New  York 
State)  is  very  small  for  so  large  a country.  A majority  of  the 
people  in  the  province  of  Quebec  are  French  Canadians,  speaking 
French  and  constituting  a rather  distinct  people.  x\bout  one-third 
of  the  total  population  of  Canada  live  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
province  of  Ontario. 


478 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


The  Vast  Areas  of  Waste  Land.  — Canada  is  a northern  land ; 
nearly  two-thirds  of  the  country  is  north  of  the  55th  parallel,  and 
most  of  this  is  ill-suited  to  agriculture.  The  Labrador  peninsula 
is  barely  explored ; British  Columbia  is  mountainous,  and  large 


Fig.  331.  • — • Interior  of  a wood-pulp  mill,  Ottawa,  Canada.  The  United  States 
is  becoming  increasingly  dependent  upon  Canada  for  paper  pulp.  (©  Keystone 
View  Co.) 

parts  of  Ontario  and  Quebec  are  covered  with  forest,  swamps, 
lakes,  or  bare  rock.  About  one-twentieth  of  the  total  land  of 
Canada  is  occupied,  and  one-fiftieth  is  under  cultivation.  This 
is  partly  due  to  the  slow  growth  of  population  and  partly  to  un- 
favorable natural  conditions,  especially  climate.  A great  deal 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE 


479 


of  good  land,  however,  is  still  unoccupied ; and,  considering  Scot- 
land and  Scandinavia,  with  their  northern  climate  and  scanty 
soil,  the  Canadian’s  faith  in  the  future  of  his  vastly  larger  and 
richer  country  is  entirely  justified. 

Forest  Wealth  and  Industries.  — Canada’s  forests  are  one  of 
her  great  natural  resources ; about  22  per  cent  of  the  total  area 


Fig.  332.  • — Regions  of  chief  mineral  production  in  Canada.  Each  circle  represents 
a value  of  $1,000,000  in  1919,  a year  of  active  production. 


is  forested.  While  this  is  nearly  as  large  as  the  forested  area  of 
the  United  States,  it  has  less  merchantable  timber  (Fig.  330). 
The  forests  are  mainly  evergreens,  such  as  pine,  spruce,  and  fir, 
though  hardwoods  are  included.  The  timber  most  easily  reached 
has  been  cut,  and  forest  fires  still  cause  enormous  losses,  as 
they  do  in  the  United  States.  Canada’s  forest  products  amount, 
to  about  $300,000,000  a year,  about  one-fifth  of  those  of  the  United 
States.  Our  own  supplies  of  sprucewood  for  paper  pulp  are 
badly  depleted  and  we  are  already  drawing  heavily  upon  Can- 
ada (Fig.  331). 

Fisheries.  — The  shallow  waters  off  the  east  coast  of  Canada 
near  Newfoundland  and  Nova  Scotia  are  among  the  most  impor- 
tant fishing  waters  of  the  world,  yielding  lobsters,  cod,  herring, 
halibut,  mackerel,  etc.,  while  British  Columbia  yields  upwards  of 


480 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


150,000,000  pounds  of  salmon  a year.  The  total  value  of  the 
fish,  about  $35,000,000  a year,  is  far  below  that  of  minerals,  forest 
products,  or  farm  crops,  yet  the  fisheries  employ  90,000  to  100,000 
men,  and  give  Canada  a place  among  the  leading  fishing  and  fish- 
exporting nations  of  the  world. 

Canada’s  Mineral  Resources.  — Canada  is  a large  country  and 
it  is  probable  that  only  a fraction  of  its  mineral  wealth  has  yet 
been  discovered.  The  minerals  of  greatest  importance  to  any 
nation  are  coal,  iron,  copper,  and  petroleum. 

Coal.  — Canada  has  coal  of  good  quality  in  Nova  Scotia  and 
Cape  Breton  Island.  From  these  mines  comes  half  the  coal  mined 
in  Canada  (Fig.  332).  The  seaboard  provinces  and  Quebec  use 
most  of  it,  but  a few  hundred  thousand  tons  are  shipped  to  New 
England  ports.  In  the  whole  long  stretch  between  Nova  Scotia 
and  Saskatchewan,  a distance  of  nearly  2000  miles,  there  are 
no  coal  beds.  This  would  be  a serious  handicap  if  coal  could  not 
be  secured  from  the  United  States.  The  coal  of  Saskatchewan 
is  of  low  grade  and  can  be  used  only  near  the  place  of  mining. 
Alberta  has  a large  area  of  fair  coal  and  British  Columbia  has 
several  deposits  of  good  quality.  The  great  drawback  is  the 
absence  of  coal  in  the  province  of  Ontario,  which  is  the  most 
populous  and  needs  it  most  and  yet  has  to  import  it  from  the 
United  States. 

Iron.  — The  greatest  iron  mines  in  the  world  are  in  Minnesota 
south  of  the  Canadian  boundary ; but  in  all  of  the  Dominion  of 
Canada  almost  no  iron  is  mined  and  no  important  deposits  are 
known.  Newfoundland  has  mines  which  supply  steel  plants  in 
Nova  Scotia  and  Cape  Breton  and  export  a little.  Canada’s  short- 
age of  this  most  important  of  metals  is  unfortunate,  especially 
since  manufacturing  is  developing  rapidly  in  parts  of  the  Dominion. 

Oilier  minerals  (Fig.  332).  — The  richest  nickel  mines  in  the  world, 
producing  over  half  the  world’s  supply,  are  at  Sudbury  in  On- 
tario. Not  far  away  are  the  rich  gold  and  silver  mines  of  the 
Cobalt  district.  Copper,  lead,  and  a long  list  of  minor  minerals 
are  mined.  Thus  far,  no  petroleum  of  importance  is  produced. 
At  present  Ontario  yields  about  40' per  cent,  British  Columbia 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE 


481 


25  per  cent,  and  Nova  Scotia  15  per  cent  (in  value)  of  the  min- 
erals produced  in  Canada.  The  total  mineral  output  is  still 
relatively  small,  but  it  will  increase  greatly  as  population  and 
development  go  on  increasing. 


Water  Power.  — Canada  has  enormous  water  power  possi- 
bilities. Ontario  and  Quebec  alone  are  officially  estimated  to 
possess  12,000,000  horse  power,  or  about  8 times  the  amount 
that  may  be  developed  at  Niagara  Falls  on  both  sides  of  the  river. 
The  glaciation  of  Canada  produced  almost  countless  rapids  and 
lakes ; the  latter  form  natural  reservoirs  for  the  storage  of  water, 
while  the  rapids  and  falls  give  the  necessary  drop  to  create  power. 
The  shortage  of  coal  in  these  provinces  may  be  partially  offset 
by  developing  the  abundant  water  power. 

Agriculture.  — This  is  the  greatest  of  Canadian  industries.  The 
amount  of  land  at  present  under  crops  in  the  Dominion  is  some- 
what greater  than  that  in  Illinois  and  Iowa,  but  several  times 
this  amount  will  probably  prove  to  be  suited  to  agriculture,  and  this 
will  exceed  the  agricultural  area  of  any  European  country  except 
Russia.  The  little  province  of  Prince  Edwards  Island  is  nearly 
all  cultivated  or  used  for  pasturage,  but  the  greater  part  of  Nova 
Scotia  and  New  Brunswick  is  unsuited  to  agriculture.  Scarcely 
2 per  cent  of  the  great  province  of  Quebec  produces  farm  crops. 


482 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


The  part  of  southern  Ontario  lying  near  Lakes  Huron,  Erie,  and 
Ontario  is  the  garden  spot  of  eastern  Canada.  This  region  is 
as  productive  as  the  states  of  Michigan  and  New  York,  between 
which  it  lies.  This  peninsula  and  the  Annapolis  Valley  of  Nova 
Scotia  are  the  two  principal  fruit  belts  of  Canada.  Ontario  has 


Fig.  334.  — Cattle  raising  in  the  Canadian  provinces.  (£/.  S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 

most  of  Canada’s  dairy  farms  and  cheese  factories.  From  south- 
ern Ontario  to  Manitoba  is  a long  stretch  of  800  to  1000  miles, 
most  of  which  is  little  more  than  a wilderness;  then  begin  the 
rich  prairie  lands  of  southern  Manitoba,  Saskatchewan,  and  Al- 
berta. These  cereal  lands  have  developed  rapidly  during  the 
past  30  years  and  are  becoming  one  of  the  great  wheat-producing 
areas  of  the  world  (Fig.  333).  These  three  provinces  are  yield- 
ing nearly  300,000,000  bushels  of  wheat  and  about  400,000,000 
bushels  of  oats  yearly,  in  addition  to  many  lesser  crops.  Fruit 
farms  and  other  farms  occupy  some  of  the  valleys  of  British 
Columbia,  but  the  product  is  small.  The  total  value  of  farm 
products  of  Canada  is  about  one-tenth  that  of  the  United  States. 

Manufactures.  — Not  only  is  Canada  a relatively  undeveloped 
country,  but  it  mines  very  little  iron,  has  no  coal  in  its  most  im- 
portant province,  and  has  a small  population.  All  of  these  con- 
ditions retard  the  growth  of  manufacturing.  In  1920  the  Do- 
minion employed  a half  million  people  in  its  mills  and  factories 
and  turned  out  $1,500,000,000  worth  of  products.  This  was 
somewhat  below  the  figures  for  New  York  City  alone.  The  out- 
put was  greatly  increased  during  the  progress  of  the  World 
War  but  dropped  back  somewhat  afterward. 

Foreign  Commerce.  — In  proportion  to  population  Canada 
has  an  exceptionally  large  foreign  trade.  Before  the  World  War, 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE 


483 


imports  exceeded  exports,  but  this  was  reversed  during  the  war. 
At  present  the  two  nearly  balance.  Canada  buys  over  half  her  im- 
ports from  the  United  States,  because  of  nearness  and  the  use  of  a 
common  language.  Our  trade  with  Canada  is  larger  than  that  with 
any  other  country  except  the  United  Kingdom.  More  than  half 
of  Canada’s  exports  come  to  the  United  States.  Why  ? Wheat 
and  other  agricultural  products  are  by  far  the  leading  exports. 
Lumber,  wood  pulp,  paper,  and  other  forest  products  are  second. 
While  her  imports  have  in  the  past  been  mainly  manufactures, 
Canada  is  increasingly  supplying  her  own  needs  in  this  direction. 

EXERCISE  XXVII 

1.  Why  is  so  much  of  Canada  either  unsettled  or  sparsely  settled? 

2.  Why  is  Labrador  so  much  colder  than  the  British  Isles,  which  are  in 
the  same  latitude? 

3.  Why  do  the  forests  of  Canada  contain  less  merchantable  timber,  acre 
for  acre,  than  those  of  the  United  States? 

4.  Why  are  ocean  fisheries  regarded  with  special  favor  by  most  govern- 
ments ? 

5.  Why  are  Canada’s  mineral  resources  less  explored  and  less  developed 
than  those  of  the  United  States? 

6.  Why  is  Canada  both  fortunate  and  unfortunate  in  her  coal  resources  ? 

7.  Why  is  the  shortage  of  iron  ore  in  Canada  a matter  of  importance? 

8.  Why  is  the  great  water  power  of  Canada  of  special  value  to  the  coun- 
try? 

9.  Why  was  manufacturing  slow  to  develop  in  Canada? 

10.  Why  does  Canada  buy  more  from  the  United  States  than  the  United 
States  buys  from  Canada? 

11.  Why  does  Great  Britain  buy  more  of  Canada’s  products  than  any 
other  European  country  buys? 

12.  Why  is  it  to  be  expected  that  a country  like  Canada  will  have  a larger 
per  capita  foreign  trade  than  a country  like  the  United  States  ? 

BRITISH  POSSESSIONS  IN  ASIA 

The  Indian  Empire 

The  People.  — Of  all  the  possessions  of  Great  Britain,  India 
is  the  most  important.  It  is  nearly  two-thirds  the  size  of  the 
United  States  and  has  over  300,000,000  people  — about  65  per 
cent  of  the  entire  population  of  the  British  Empire.  When  Eng- 
land took  possession  of  India  it  was  made  up  of  many  native  states, 


484 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


each  under  its  own  ruler.  So  diverse  is  India  that  each  one  of 
eleven  different  languages  is  spoken  by  more  people  than  speak 
English  in  India.  Newspapers  are  issued  in  more  than  twenty- 
five  languages.  Seven  different  religions  in  India  count  their 
followers  by  millions.  The  vast  majority  of  the  people  are  very 
poor  and  illiterate,  yet  they  are  better  off  than  before  they  came 
under  British  rule.  The  average  earnings  of  a laborer  are  from 
$10  to  $20  a year.  Famines,  carrying  off  millions  of  people, 
have  been  frequent,  but  are  diminishing.  The  caste  system  is 
practically  universal ; there  are  four  principal  castes,  but  these 
are  divided  and  subdivided  until  more  than  2000  castes  and  sub- 
castes are  officially  recognized. 

The  Climate.  — The  cause  of  the  monsoon  winds,  which  in 
summer  blow  from  the  sea  over  India  and  in  the  winter  blow 
from  the  land,  is  discussed  on  page  270. 1 The  summer  or  wet 
monsoon  is  all-important  to  India ; if  it  fails  to  bring  the  ac- 
customed rainfall,  millions  of  people  suffer  and  thousands  starve. 
Most  of  India  is  in  the  torrid  zone  or  just  north  of  it,  and 
is  very  hot  and  sultry  in  summer.  In  the  tropical  part  chil- 
dren of  European  parents  cannot  as  a rule  be  reared  in  health ; 
hence  few  English  families  live  continuously  in  tropical  India. 
The  rainfall  is  terrific  on  the  slopes  of  the  Himalayas  in  north- 
eastern India ; but  northwestern  India,  the  plain  of  the  lower 
Indus,  is  mainly  desert.  In  almost  all  parts  of  India  irrigation 
is  practiced  during  the  dry  (or  winter)  season.  Nowhere  else  in 
the  world  is  irrigation  so  extensively  employed.  One  of  the  great- 
est benefits  to  agriculture  in  India  is  the  great  irrigation  works 
constructed  by  the  British. 

The  Importance  of  Agriculture. — The  all-important  industry 
of  India  is  agriculture,  practiced  by  80  per  cent  or  more  of  the 
people,  who  live  in  little  villages  and  work  little  pieces  of  land 
by  antiquated  methods.  Almost  everything  is  done  by  hand  or 
possibly  with  the  aid  of  a cow  or  bullock.  Over  half  of  the  land 
is  under  cultivation,  for  most  of  the  food  for  300,000,000  people 

1 Review  the  section  on  the  Monsoons  in  Chapter  XIV,  page  270,  and  that  on  the 
Ganges  in  Chapter  IX,  page  178. 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE 


485 


Fig.  335.  • — Pilgrims  bathing  in  the  sacred  Ganges,  before  the  many  temples  of  the 
holy  city  of  Benares.  (©  Keystone  View  Co.) 


11- 


486 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


must  be  raised  at  home.  The  growing  of  rice  on  from  60  to  70 
million  acres  surpasses  everything  else  (Fig.  336).  Wheat  comes 
next,  followed  by  cotton  ; both  are  exported  to  quite  an  extent. 
India  ranks  second  to  the  United  States  as  a grower  of  cotton. 


Fig.  336.  — Note  the  concentration  of  rice  production  in  the  valley  of  the  lower 
Ganges  and  Brahmaputra  rivers.  ( V . S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


Great  quantities  of  millet  are  raised  for  home  use.  Next  to  Cuba, 
India  is  the  largest  producer  of  cane  sugar  in  the  world,  but  it 
is  mostly  used  at  home.  India  also  has  more  cattle  than  any  other 
country,  though  for  religious  reasons  they  are  not  widely  used 
for  meat.  The  lowlands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Ganges  produce 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE 


487 


three-fourths  of  the  jute  grown  in  the  world.  Jute  is  a fiber  used 
by  the  millions  of  bales  in  making  coarse  bags  (gunny  sacks)  used 
for  shipping  raw  sugar,  coffee,  grain,  cotton,  and  many  other  com- 
modities ; it  is  also  used  for  making  burlap  and  cordage.  The  tea 


Fig.  337.  — Railroad  station,  Bombay,  India.  ( Courtesy  Nat.  City  Bank.) 

plantations  of  India  and  Ceylon  together  export  nearly  twice  as 
much  tea  as  China  and  Japan  combined. 

The  Backward  State  of  Mining  and  Manufacturing.  — India 
has  moderate  resources  of  coal,  iron,  gold,  petroleum,  manga- 
nese, and  a number  of  other  minerals,  but  the  total  output  of  min- 
erals is  only  about  $100,000,000  a year,  or  less  than  the  value  of 
the  coal  mined  in  West  Virginia.  The  native  peoples  are  wonder- 
fully skillful  in  the  hand  trades,  such  as  hand  weaving,  working 
in  gold,  silver,  and  brass,  ivory  carving,  etc.  These  workmen 
have  opposed  the  introduction  of  machinery,  but  with  only  partial 
success,  for  cotton  factories,  jute  mills,  sugar  refineries,  and  other 
forms  of  manufacturing  have  been  established.  Since  Great 
Britain  is  an  exporter  of  manufactures,  the  British  Government 


488 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


naturally  does  not  seek  to  build  up  manufacturing  in  its  greatest 
colony,  although  it  cannot  be  said  that  it  actively  opposes  the 
development  of  manufacturing. 

Relations  with  Great  Britain.  — India  is  officially  called  “ The 


Fig.  338.  — Tin  workings  in  the  Malay  Peninsula.  This  region,  including  near-by 
islands,  supplies  the  greater  part  of  the  world’s  tin.  ( Phila . Museums.) 

Empire  of  India  ” ; the  emperor  is  the  king  of  England,  who  is 
represented  by  a governor-general  sent  out  by  the  British  Govern- 
ment. It  will  be  seen  from  the  map  (Fig.  324)  that  British  India 
has  reached  westward  and  absorbed  Baluchistan,  and  has  reached 
eastward  and  absorbed  Burma.  It  is  gradually  reaching  north- 
ward into  Tibet  and  still  farther  westward  into  Persia.  Two-thirds 
of  the  area  of  India  is  ruled  directly  by  high  British  officials,  but 
the  vast  majority  of  the  lower  officials  are  Hindus.  Somewhat 
less  than  150  small  native  states  are  still  allowed  to  retain  their 
native  princes  as  nominal  rulers,  but  these  are  also  essentially 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE 


489 


under  British  authority.  Great  Britain  regards  India  as  the 
choicest  gem  in  her  colonial  empire ; to  bind  it  closer  to  the  home 
country  she  secured  the  Suez  Canal.  Her  trade  with  India  is 
larger  than  that  with  any  other  of  the  British  possessions.  India  is 
better  off  under  British  rule  than  it  was  before  or  would  be  for 
a long  time  to  come  under  an  independent  government.  Many 
Hindus,  however,  are  dissatisfied  and  desire  independence. 

The  Malay  Peninsula 

This  small  area  and  two  Dutch  islands  near  by  contain  the 
greatest  known  tin  deposits  in  the  world  (Fig.  338).  This  general 
region,  including  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  also  contains  the  greater 
part  of  the  rubber  plantations  of  the  world,  which  yield  80  per 
cent  of  all  the  crude  rubber  that  is  produced.  The  Amazon 
Valley,  once  the  leading  producer,  has  declined  rapidly  in 
production.  Singapore,  a city  at  the  very  southern  tip  of  the 
Malay  Peninsula,  is  one  of  the  great  commercial  centers  of  this 
part  of  the  world. 

Hongkong 

Hongkong  consists  of  an  island  and  a small  piece  of  mainland 
now  belonging  to  Great  Britain  on  the  southeast  coast  of  China 
(Fig.  324).  On  the  island  is  the  very  important  commercial  city 
of  Victoria.  This  great  collecting  and  distributing  center  of  the 
Far  East  is  usually  called  Hongkong,  not  Victoria ; it  is  one  of 
the  six  greatest  ports  of  the  world. 

Southwestern  Asia 

Great  Britain  has  long  held  Aden,  a city  and  strip  of  land  at 
the  southern  corner  of  Arabia,  guarding  the  southern  outlet  of 
the  Red  Sea,  which  is  part  of  the  Suez  route  to  India.  As  a 
result  of  the  World  War  Mesopotamia  (in  the  valley  of  the  Tigris- 
Euphrates)  and  probably  certain  other  parts  of  the  old  Turkish 
Empire  will  pass  under  British  influence  (Fig.  324). 


490 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Australia  and  New  Zealand 

Australia.  — Opened  to  settlement  in  1788  and  organized  into 
a self-governing  commonwealth  in  1901,  Australia  has  risen 
to  an  influential  place  in  the  British  Empire.  Though  equal 
to  the  United  States  in  area  it  has  only  5,000,000  people ; and 


Fig.  339.  — States  and  chief  cities  of  the  Australian  Commonwealth. 


only  10  or  12  per  cent  of  its  area  has  both  a temperate  climate  and 
sufficient  rainfall  for  agriculture.  Owing  to  the  position  of  the 
main  mountain  range  close  to  the  eastern  (windward)  side  of  the 
continent,  over  40  per  cent  is  desert,  and  about  28  per 
cent  is  suited  only  to  pasturage  (Fig.  340).  Less  than  one  per 
cent  of  the  total  area  is  cultivated  and  nearly  one-half  of  this  is 
devoted  to  wheat,  the  leading  crop.  The  prevailing  aridity  of 
the  climate  causes  Australia  to  be,  in  the  main,  a pastoral  land, 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE 


491 


and  its  90,000,000  sheep  make  it  the  greatest  exporter  of  wool 
in  the  world  (Fig.  342) ; about  40  per  cent  of  its  exports  consists 
of  wool,  the  greater  part  of  which  is  sold  at  the  wool  auctions  of 


Fig.  340.  - — Rainfall  zones  in  Australia.  {Gregory  in  Nat.  Geog.  Mag.) 


Sydney,  which  are  attended  by  buyers  from  all  the  principal  wool- 
importing countries  of  the  world. 

Australia  has  important  mineral  resources,  — gold,  coal,  tin, 
copper,  silver,  lead,  zinc,  and  others  (Fig.  343).  It  is  one  of  the 
five  leading  gold  producers  of  the  world.  Single  gold  nuggets 
worth  $50,000  to  $75,000  each  have  been  found.  The  principal 
coal  fields  are  near  the  east  coast  and  send  coal  to  California  and 
South  iVmerica.  However,  all  the  minerals  produced  are  worth 
much  less  than  the  wool  alone.  Most  of  the  people  live  in  the 
southeastern  part  of  the  continent.  The  population  is  so  small 


492 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  341.  — Grazing  lands  in  South  Australia.  ( Physiography  Lab.  Cornell  Univ.) 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE 


493 


Fig.  342.  — Distribution  of  sheep  in  Australia  and  New  Zealand:  compare  with 
the  rainfall  map,  Fig.  340.  {U . S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


Fig.  343.  — Approximate  annual  production  of  the  chief  minerals  of  Australia. 


494 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


in  proportion  to  the  value  of  the  products  that  the  export  trade 
is  over  $100  per  capita,  a figure  reached  by  only  a few  countries 
in  the  world,  and  considerably  greater  than  that  of  the  United 
States  at  its  highest.  The  people  are  nearly  all  of  British  an- 


Fig.  344.  — Loading  a steamer  with  pigs  of  lead  and  zinc  from  the  famous  Broken 
Hill  mines  of  New  South  Wales.  This  is  one  of  the  leading  zinc  and  lead  pro- 
ducing districts  of  the  world.  ( Physiography  Lab.  Cornell  Univ.) 

cestry.  Immigration  is  small,  hence  the  population  grows  slowly. 
Strict  laws  against  the  admission  of  colored  races  are  in  force. 
The  labor  party  is  very  strong  and  many  laws  of  the  commonwealth 
have  been  largely  dictated  by  this  party.  The  remote  posi- 
tion of  the  continent  and  its  small  proportion  of  arable  land  hinder 
rapid  development.  The  principal  cities  are  Sydney  and  Mel- 
bourne, each  having  a population  of  three-fourths  of  a million. 

New  Zealand  consists  of  two  main  islands  having  the  area  of 
Colorado  and  a population  of  somewhat  over  a million.  The 
raising  of  sheep  and  cattle  is  the  chief  industry  (Fig.  342).  There 
are  twenty  sheep  for  every  person  on  the  islands.  Meat,  wool, 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE 


495 


and  dairy  products  are  the  principal  exports.  Both  gold  and 
coal  are  mined  in  considerable  quantities.  The  overseas  trade 
of  New  Zealand  is  very  large  in  proportion  to  the  population, 
in  fact,  greater  than  that  of  the  United  States.  The  per  capita 
wealth  of  the  people  is  also  high,  among  the  highest  in  the  world. 

British  Possessions  in  Africa 

About  40  per  cent  of  the  great  continent  of  Africa  and  40 
per  cent  of  its  people  are  now  under  the  British  flag,  or  within 
the  British  sphere  of  influence  (Fig. 

324).  By  acquiring  German  East 
Africa,  Great  Britain  now  holds  land 
or  transportation  rights  extending 
the  length  of  Africa,  making  possible 
the  building  of  the  “Cape  to  Cairo” 
railroad  wholly  under  British  control. 

In  this  vast  area  there  is  only  a small 
proportion  of  white  people,  and  these 
are  chiefly  in  South  Africa.  The  na- 
tives produce  little  that  enters  into 
international  trade  and  they  consume 
little  that  needs  to  be  imported.  With 
the  exception  of  South  Africa  the 
British  possessions  in  Africa  have 
a relatively  small  present  value, 
but  that  value  will  greatly  increase 

With  time.  ' Fl?-  3?5‘  — The  cotton  prochic- 

mg  lands  of  the  Nile  delta  and 

Egypt. — After  the  Outbreak  of  the  valley.  In  value  of  cotton 

World  War,  Egvpt  was  definitely  produced,  Egypt  ranks  third, 

1 J following  the  United  States 

regarded  as  a protectorate  of  Great  and  India.  {U.  S.  Dept,  of 

Britain ; but  in  1922,  it  was  granted  Agr ^ 

almost  complete  independence.  Egypt  consists  of  a small  area 
of  irrigated  land,  the  delta  and  flood  plain  of  the  Nile, 
and  a large  area  of  desert.  The  irrigated  portion  is  exceed- 
ingly productive  and  very  densely  populated.  On  an  irri- 
gated area  smaller  than  the  little  state  of  New  Jersey  live 


496 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


nearly  as  many  people  as  inhabit  the  two  vast  countries,  Canada 
and  Australia.  Irrigation  in  Egypt  is  discussed  on  page  176.  Egypt 
produces  a large  variety  of  crops,  including  wheat,  rice,  sugar, 
and  corn,  but  the  one  crop  that  overshadows  everything  else 


Fig.  346.  • — The  rising  waters  of  the  Nile  in  the  annual  overflow  of  its  flood  plain. 

(©  Keystone  View  Co.) 

is  cotton  (of  high  grade).  Of  somewhat  over  $200,000,000  worth 
of  products  exported  from  Egypt  in  a recent  year,  $167,000,000 
consisted  of  cotton,  the  greater  part  going  to  England,  but 
$25,000,000  worth  going  to  the  United  States. 

The  Suez  Canal.  — This  famous  canal  about  100  miles  long, 
connecting  the  Mediterranean  and  Red  seas,  was  built  under 
the  direction  of  a French  engineer  and  was  opened  to  traffic  in 
1869,  but  later  the  British  gained  control  of  it.  The  canal  nearly 
failed  financially  in  the  early  years  but  is  now  exceedingly  prof- 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE 


497 


itable,  for  ships  passing  through  pay  toll.  A ship  of  even  moder- 
ate size  pays  as  much  as  $5000  to  $10,000  for  one  transit  of  the 
canal.  It  shortens  the  ocean  route  between  Europe  and  the  Orient 
by  many  thousands  of  miles.  This  link  in  the  water  route  to 
India  is  of  great  importance  to  the  British  Empire. 


Fig.  347.  — One  of  the  diamond  mines  of  Kimberley,  South  Africa.  The  diamonds 
are  found  in  the  necks  of  extinct  volcanoes.  ( Physiography  Lab.  Cornell  U niv.) 

South  Africa.  — This  part  of  the  world  has  become  famous 
as  the  producer  of  nearly  half  of  the  world’s  gold  and  practically 
all  of  its  diamonds.  The  diamonds  are  found  in  ancient  lava 
which  fills  the  necks  of  old  volcanoes,  mainly  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  city  of  Kimberley  (Fig.  347).  The  gold  fields  are  somewhat 
farther  north,  near  Johannesburg.  Next  to  gold,  wool  is  the 
largest  product  of  South  Africa,  exceeding  diamonds  in  total  value. 

The  country  is  for  the  most  part  a plateau  with  light  rain- 
fall, better  suited  to  sheep  raising  than  to  agriculture.  The 
early  white  settlers  were  Dutch  and  their  descendants,  called 
Boers,  make  up  the  major  part  of  the  white  people  in  large 


498 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


sections  of  the  country.  The  Union  of  South  Africa  is,  like  Can- 
ada, a self-governing  dominion ; Cape  Town  is  the  chief  city. 

Summary 

For  400  years  Great  Britain  has  been  a colonizing  power.  Cen- 
tury after  century  she  has  gone  on  acquiring  new  possessions  by 
colonization  and  conquest  until  her  colonial  empire  is  the  most 
extensive  that  any  nation  ever  possessed.  Hand  in  hand  with 
this  acquisition  of  new  lands  has  gone  the  expansion  of  her  com- 
merce and  the  growth  of  her  great  manufacturing  industries  at 
home.  The  very  life  of  the  nation  depends  upon  manufacturing, 
which  is  made  possible  by  her  great  resources  of  coal.  Her  com- 
merce consists  in  large  part  of  selling  these  manufactures  to  her 
colonies  and  to  other  countries,  and  in  return  securing  from  them 
needed  raw  materials  and  foodstuffs.  To  do  this  requires  ships 
in  great  numbers,  and  so  Great  Britain  became  the  leading  ship- 
builder and  ocean  carrier.  To  protect  her  scattered  colonies  and 
her  commerce  requires  a large  navy  and  widely  distributed  coaling 
stations  and  naval  stations.  Her  great  coal  resources  near  the  sea 
permit  the  export  of  coal  to  many  parts  of  the  world  that  furnish 
return  cargoes  to  British  ships,  thus  cheapening  ocean  freight 
rates  to  the  British  Isles. 

British  capitalists  have  invested  large  sums  of  money  in  the 
colonies  and  in  foreign  countries.  This  has  gone  into  railroads, 
public  works,  banks,  etc.,  and  the  dividends  and  interest  from 
these  investments  have  flowed  back  to  Great  Britain.  Moreover, 
British  ships  earn  many  millions  of  pounds  sterling  for  their  owners. 

Canada,  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and  South  Africa  are  self- 
governing,  almost  independent,  countries.  If  they  chose  to  do  so, 
they  probably  would  be  allowed  to  separate  themselves  from  the 
Empire,  but  they  prefer  to  remain  under  the  British  flag.  The 
Empire  of  India,  the  most  populous  colony,  is  only  partially  self- 
governing,  yet  it  is  probably  better  off  than  it  would  be  under 
any  government  or  governments  which  it  could  independently 
maintain.  However,  India  has  many  people  who  are  dissatisfied 


THE  BRITISH  EMPIRE 


499 


with  British  rule.  Ireland  has  been  granted  a status  about  like 
that  of  Canada  or  Australia  and  is  known  as  the  Free  State  of 
Ireland.  With  the  exception  of  Canada  the  commerce  of  the 
British  colonies  is  more  largely  with  the  home  country  than  with 
any  other  ; yet  no  British  colony  has  so  much  trade  with  the  United 
Kingdom  as  has  the  United  States  or  as  Germany  had  before  the 
war.  Most  of  the  materials  needed  in  English  industries  are 
bought  abroad ; these  include  cotton  from  the  United  States,  iron 
ore  from  Spain  and  Sweden,  and  petroleum  from  the  United  States 
and  Mexico.  As  a result  of  the  World  War  Britain  greatly  ex- 
tended her  territory  in  Africa  and  strengthened  her  position  in 
southwestern  Asia ; but  the  war  imposed  an  enormous  debt 
upon  the  nation.  The  English-speaking  peoples  have  risen  to  a 
commanding  place  among  the  nations,  and  if  the  highest  ideals  of 
these  peoples  can  prevail  their  leadership  will  benefit  the  world. 

EXERCISE  XXVIII 

Consult  an  Atlas;  also  Figs.  229,  298,  32J.,  350. 

1.  Locate  Canada,  Australia,  India,  New  Zealand,  British  Guiana,  New- 
foundland, Suez  Canal,  Ceylon,  Jamaica,  Nova  Scotia,  Malay  Peninsula, 
British  Columbia,  Egypt,  province  of  Ontario,  Province  of  Quebec,  Burma, 
Wales,  Malta,  Gibraltar,  Aden,  Hongkong,  Bermuda  Islands,  Bahama  Is- 
lands. 

2.  Locate  the  following  cities : London,  Liverpool,  Glasgow,  Edinburgh, 
Dublin,  Manchester,  Calcutta,  Bombay,  Singapore,  Melbourne,  Sydney,  Auck- 
land, Halifax,  Quebec,  Montreal,  Toronto,  Winnipeg,  Vancouver. 

3.  Where  in  the  British  Empire  are  the  following  produced  in  large  quan- 
tities : tin,  rubber,  gold,  coal,  nickel,  diamonds,  cotton,  rice,  wheat,  wool, 
forest  products,  silver  ? 

4.  Why  is  the  climate  of  the  British  Isles  exceptionally  mild  for  their 
latitude  ? 

5.  Why  is  the  geographical  situation  of  the  British  Isles  highly  favor- 
able for  commerce? 

6.  Why  are  ocean  fisheries  especially  important  to  a nation  such  as  the 
United  Kingdom? 

7.  Why  do  the  British  consider  it  necessary  to  maintain  a large  navy? 

8.  Why  does  the  United  Kingdom  need  a larger  merchant  fleet  than 
Russia  ? 

9.  Why  is  the  Suez  Canal  more  important  to  the  United  Kingdom  than 
to  any  other  country? 

10.  Why  is  a large  part  of  Australia  a desert? 


500 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


11.  Why  is  sheep  raising  the  most  suitable  industry  in  much  of  Australia? 

12.  Wiry  has  the  population  of  Canada  increased  more  slowly  than  that 
of  the  United  States? 

13.  Why  has  the  population  of  Australia  increased  slowly? 

14.  Why  is  foreign  trade  more  necessary  to  the  United  Kingdom  than  to 
the  United  States? 

15.  Why  does  India  have  its  rains  chiefly  in  summer? 

16.  What  reasons  can  you  assign  for  the  great  power  and  influence  of  the 
British  nation? 

17.  Suppose  the  coal  of  the  British  Isles  were  to  become  exhausted  ; what 
would  be  some  of  the  important  results? 

18.  Suppose  the  British  Isles  in  time  of  war  could  be  so  effectively  block- 
aded that  no  ships  could  enter  or  leave  British  ports ; what  would  probably 
be  the  outcome?  WThy? 

19.  Where  do  the  British  cotton  mills  get  the  greater  part  of  their  raw  cot- 
ton? Why  is  Great  Britain  very  anxious  to  increase  cotton  growing  within 
the  empire  ? What  parts  of  the  empire  would  be  best  suited  to  cotton  grow- 
ing? 


FIG.  348 


CHAPTER  XXIII 


CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 

European  Leadership.  — Europeans  and  their  descendants  dom- 
inate most  of  the  world.  Europeans  discovered  and  colonized 
the  western  hemisphere,  and  their  descendants  now  occupy  it. 
Europeans  have  taken  possession  of  Australia  and  nearly  the 
whole  of  Africa ; they  rule  more  than  half  of  Asia  and  practi- 
cally all  the  islands  of  the  sea.  European  civilization  has 
spread  over  the  earth  ; it  seems  to  have  won  because  of  its  supe- 
riority (Figs.  349,  350). 

To  what  is  this  conquering  and  dominating  power  of  European 
peoples  due  ? No  one  can  regard  it  as  a mere  accident ; there 
must  be  a cause  or  a combination  of  causes.  To  say  that  this 
superiority  is  something  in  the  peoples  themselves  and  to  account 


MILLIONS  OF  SQUARE  MILES 


AREA  OF 

CO 

UJ 

NATIONS  OF 

AREA  OF 

AREA 

Q. 

O 

EUROPEAN  ORIGIN 

DEPENDENCIES 

OF  ALL 

Z> 

LU 

CHIEFLY  IN 

OF 

OTHER 

U. 

O 

NORTH  AMERICA 

EUROPEAN  NATIONS 

LANDS 

< 

AND  SOUTH  AMERICA 

28.6 

8 

a: 

< 

17.5 

Fig.  349.  — Proportional  areas,  showing  the  extent  of  European  domination. 


for  it  by  saying  that  some  races  are  stronger  and  abler  than  others 
is  no  answer.  We  want  to  know,  if  we  can,  why  Europeans  became 
superior  to  most  other  peoples.  Is  their  power  of  leadership  due 
to  something  in  the  climate  in  which  they  have  lived,  or  in 

501 


502 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


the  configuration  of  the  continent,  or  in  its  productions,  or  in 
its  position  with  reference  to  the  other  continents,  or  to  some- 
thing else?  Probably  all  these  factors  have  done  something  to 


POPULATION 

OF 

EUROPE 

470,000,000 


POPULATION 
OF  NATIONS 
OF 

EUROPEAN 
ORIGIN 
CHIEFLY  IN 
NORTH 
AMERICA 
AND 
SOUTH 
AMERICA 

205,000, QUO 


POPULATION 

OF 

DEPENDENCIES 

OF 

EUROPEAN  NATIONS 
515,000,000 


POPULATION 

OF 

ALL  OTHER 
NATIONS 
510,000,000 


Fig.  350.  — The  areas  of  the  four  spaces  in  the  above  diagram  are  proportional  to 
the  respective  populations  as  indicated.  The  figures  are  approximations  in  round 
numbers. 


create  the  characteristics  which  Europeans  have  acquired  during 
past  centuries.  Most  Europeans  were  barbarians  when  we  first 
know  of  them;  and  from  this  condition  of  barbarism  they  have 
been  changed  into  the  most  enlightened  and  most  masterful  people 
in  the  world. 

The  Climate  of  Europe  as  a Whole.  — Europe  is  the  most  north- 
erly of  the  continents ; not  only  does  it  lie  almost  wholly  in  the 
temperate  zone,  but  it  lies  in  the  northern  part  of  that  zone.  Both 
Asia  and  North  America  extend  far  enough  south  to  reach  well 
within  the  tropics  ; not  so  with  Europe,  whose  southernmost  point 
is  in  latitude  38°  (15°  north  of  the  tropic).  Every  part  of 
Europe  has  those  distinct  seasonal  changes  which  are  found  only 
in  the  temperate  zones.  Every  part  of  Europe  has  a winter  and 
a summer ; and  every  country  has  snow,  though  snow  does  not 
fall  in  every  part  of  these  countries. 

All  great  peoples  are  or  have  been  agricultural  peoples.  The 
desert,  the  tropical  jungle,  and  semiarid  steppe,  or  the  tundra, 
cannot  produce  great  nations.  It  is  noteworthy  that  Europe 
has  the  smallest  proportion  of  nonagricultural  land  of  any  of  the 
continents.  It  is  the  only  continent  without  a desert,  and  almost 
everywhere  the  rainfall  is  sufficient  for  crops  (Fig.  351). 

Europe  is  in  the  belt  of  prevailing  westerlies,  which  bring  rapid 
and  extreme  changes  of  weather.  Much  as  we  may  dislike  these 


CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 


503 


constant  changes,  they  are  believed  to  be  beneficial.  There  is 
little  doubt  that  mental  and  physical  vigor,  the  work  habit,  the 
practice  of  taking  thought  for  the  future,  of  laying  up  some- 
thing, and  of  getting  work  done  when  there  is  opportunity  are 


traits  most  conspicuous  in  the  peoples  who  have  been  exposed 
to  these  rapid  changes  of  weather  and  to  distinct  changes  of 
seasons.  The  cold  weather  renews  our  vigor  and  makes  us  enjoy 
work.  The  enjoyment  of  work,  the  love  of  achievement,  the 
aggressiveness  and  progressiveness  of  the  leading  European  and 
American  peoples  are  directly  connected  with  the  climate  under 
which  for  centuries  they  have  lived. 

The  Remarkable  Coast  Line  of  Europe.  — No  other  continent 
has  a coast  line  which  approaches  that  of  Europe  in  irregularity. 
Peninsulas,  large  and  small,  protrude  from  almost  every  part  of 
the  continent,  and  long  arms  of  the  sea  reach  far  into  the  land ; 


504 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


there  are  many  islands,  and  many  estuaries.  All  of  this  has  had 
somewhat  to  do  with  the  rate  of  progress  and  the  position  of 
leadership  which  Europe  has  achieved. ' Countries  progress  by  the 
exchange  of  ideas.  Commerce,  especially  sea-borne  commerce,  is 
one  of  the  great  carriers  of  ideas.  Into  the  chief  harbors  of  a 
country  come  ships  and  people  from  many  lands,  each  bringing 
something  new.  The  remarkably  indented  coast  line  of  Europe, 
with  its  islands  and  inclosed  seas,  had  a most  beneficial  effect  upon 
navigation  and  commerce.  Outside  of  Russia  no  part  of  Europe 
is  far  from  the  sea,  and  so  various  articles  of  trade  and  the  traders 
who  carried  them  reached  into  nearly  all  parts  of  Europe.  In- 
formation spread  from  place  to  place  and  this  stimulated  thought 
and  suggested  other  ideas.  The  coast  line  of  Europe  is  ideally 
suited  to  this  commercial  activity  and  its  consequent  stimulus 
to  mental  activity.  Another  aid  to  the  rise  of  European  peoples 
undoubtedly  has  been  this  greatly  indented  coast  line  which  the 
continent  has. 

The  Surface  Features  of  Europe.  — Europe  is  a continent  of 
exceptionally  complex  surface  features.  Its  mountain  ranges  are 
scattered  and  they  extend  in  various  directions ; to  these  moun- 
tain spurs  most  of  the  peninsulas  are  due ; for  example,  Greece, 
Italy,  Spain-Portugal,  and  Norway-Sweden.  Most  of  the  impor- 
tant islands  are  due  to  mountainous  areas  protruding  above  the 
sea ; for  example,  Sicily,  Sardinia,  Corsica,  the  Greek  archipelago, 
and  the  British  Isles.  The  people  of  each  of  these  peninsulas 
and  each  of  the  larger  islands,  being  somewhat  set  off  by  them- 
selves, developed  their  own  peculiarities,  their  own  ways  of  think- 
ing and  doing,  their  own  languages,  customs,  and  ideas.  Yet 
these  various  peoples  were  isolated  only  in  part,  for  there  was 
communication  among  them.  They  traded  and  traveled  in  one 
another’s  lands.  There  was  a constant  exchange  of  ideas. 
The  physical  barriers  that  separated  them  were  sufficient  to  en- 
able each  country  to  develop  and  preserve,  in  a measure,  its  own 
type  of  civilization,  but  they  were  not  sufficient  to  prevent  that 
interchange  of  ideas  which  made  each  country  a sharer  in  the 
progress  of  all  the  others.  Thus  did  Europe’s  diversity  of  sur- 


CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 


505 


face  tend  to  produce  diversity  of  peoples  whose  intercourse  carried 
the  peoples  forward  in  civilization.  Herein  seems  to  be  a third 
reason  for  the  rapid  rise  of  Europe  to  its  place  of  world  leader- 
ship. 

The  Rivers  of  Europe.  — Europe  is  too  small  to  have  rivers 
of  great  size,  but  many  of  them  are  extensively  used  for  navi- 
gation. This  is  partly  due  to  the  dense  population  in  Europe 
The  Rhine,  the  Volga,  and  the  Danube  are  the  most  important. 
The  Rhine  and  the  Volga  are  described  in  Chapter  IX.  The  Dan- 
ube rises  in  the  Alps,  the  chief  watershed  of  Europe,  and  flows 
into  the  Black  Sea.  It  has  large  navigable  branches  in  the 
rich  agricultural  lands  of  Hungary  and  Rumania.  The  main 
river  is  also  an  important  waterway  for  parts  of  Serbia  and  Bul- 
garia. At  the  “Iron  Gate”  the  river  has  carved  a deep  gorge 
through  the  mountains,  and  here  the  channel  has  been  made  navi- 
gable by  expensive  improvements. 

The  Rhine,  Elbe,  and  Oder,  whose  courses  are  chiefly  in  Ger- 
many, and  the  Vistula  in  Poland,  have  all  been  made  “interna- 
tional rivers,”  governed  by  international  boards,  so  that  the  dif- 
ferent countries  through  which  they  flow  may  use  them  in  common. 
The  Elbe  and  the  Oder  give  the  new  nation  of  Czechoslovakia 
water  connection  with  the  sea. 

The  rivers  of  France,  especially  the  Seine,  Loire,  Saone,  and 
their  largest  branches,  have  been  improved  and  connected  by 
canals  so  that  boats  of  moderate  size  may  pass  from  river  to  river 
and  may  also  reach  the  rivers  of  Belgium  and  Germany.  All 
of  the  more  important  rivers  of  Germany  and  a few  of  those  of 
Russia  are  also  connected  by  canals.  These  interior  waterways 
of  Europe  are  used  more  than  the  rivers  of  the  United  States. 

In  Great  Britain  inland  waterways  are  not  important,  except 
the  mouths  of  rivers  like  the  Thames,  Mercy,  Tyne,  and  Clyde, 
whose  estuaries  form  the  chief  harbors  of  the  British  Isles. 

The  Po  *is  the  only  river  of  Italy  of  any  size.  The  river  and 
its  tributaries  flow  through  a very  fertile  flood  plain  which  they 
have  built,  and  they  supply  water  for  the  irrigation  of  some  140,- 
000  acres  of  agricultural  land. 


506 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


The  Races  of  Europe.  — This  topic  can  be  discussed  here  only 
in  a very  general  way.  With  a few  unimportant  exceptions  all 
the  European  peoples  belong  to  the  white  race.  The  Lapps 
and  Finns  of  the  Far  North,  the  Hungarians,  and  the  European 
Turks  are  descended  from  peoples  of  the  Mongolian  or  Yellow 
race,  but  they  have  been  so  long  in  Europe  that  the  difference 
between  them  and  the  other  Europeans  is  not  necessarily  greater 
than  the  differences  among  some  of  the  white  Europeans  them- 
selves. 

Europe  has  three  major  racial  groups : (1)  the  Latin  or  Medi- 
terranean group,  including  Italians,  Spanish,  Portuguese,  and 
the  French  in  part ; (2)  the  Teutonic  group,  including  the  English, 
Scandinavians,  Dutch,  Germans,  and  German  Austrians,  and 
an  important  element  of  the  French  and  the  Belgians ; (3)  the 
Slavs,  including  the  majority  of  the  Russians,  Poles,  Bohemians, 
and  a large  part  of  the  Balkan  peoples.  Besides  these  three 
major  groups,  several  million  Celts  are  found  in  Wales,  Ireland, 
Scotland,  and  Brittany  in  France,  and  the  French  as  a whole 
have  a large  amount  of  Celtic  blood.  The  Latin  peoples  are 
largely  Roman  Catholics  in  religion,  a majority  of  the  Teutonic 
peoples  are  Protestants,  and  the  Slavs  are  mainly  Greek  Catholics. 

Each  of  the  three  principal  racial  groups  of  Europe  has  pro- 
duced one  or  more  strong  nations  : Russia  among  the  Slavs  ; Italy 
and  France  among  the  Latins  ; Great  Britain  and  Germany  among 
the  Teutons.  Since  the  United  States,  Canada,  Australia,  and 
New  Zealand  must  be  considered  mainly  Teutonic,  it  is  evident 
that  the  Teutonic  peoples  are  the  most  influential  racial  group. 
Among  the  Teutonic  nations  the  English-speaking  people  are  most 
numerous  and  most  powerful.  It  seems  clear  that  there  is  some- 
thing in  the  climate  of  the  belt  of  prevailing  westerlies  that,  im- 
parts mental  and  bodily  vigor,  ambition,  and  determination,  and 
helps  to  make  strong  nations. 

The  Mineral  Resources  of  Europe 

Coal  and  Iron.  — Europe  could  not  have  become  the  ruling  con- 
tinent that  it  is  if  it  had  not  been  rich  in  minerals.  No  modern 


CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 


507 


country  can  become  a first-class  power  that  does  not  either  have 
coal  and  iron  within  its  own  borders  or  have  easy  access  to  them. 
In  the  present  industrial  and  commercial  age  the  rank  of  a coun- 
try as  a world  power  is  closely  connected  with  its  use  of  coal  and 
iron. 

Unlike  South  America,  Europe  has  many  coal  fields  and  much 
iron  ore  (Fig.  352).  Great  Britain  is  the  largest  producer  of  coal 


Fig.  352.  — Average  annual  production  of  coal  and  iron  in  western  and  central 

Europe. 


in  Europe,  and  for  a long  time  was  the  greatest  exporter  in  the 
world ; Germany  came  second,  followed  by  France  and  Austria- 
Hungary,  but  the  World  War  so  upset  production  that  comparative 
figures  have  lost  their  meaning.  Russia  has  valuable  coal  mines 
in  the  south,  and  Belgium  has  part  of  the  coal  beds  that  extend 
into  northern  France.  Of  the  leading  nations  of  Europe,  Italy 
alone  has  almost  no  coal,  a most  serious  drawback  to  that  country. 
During  the  war  and  since,  Italy  has  suffered  greatly  from  this 


508 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


lack.  Spain  has  coal  beds,  but  only  a small  amount  is  mined. 
Holland,  Switzerland,  and  the  three  Scandinavian  countries  have 
no  coal  at  all,  or  very  little,  and  the  Balkan  Peninsula  has 
but  little.  The  new  states  of  Poland  and  Czechoslovakia  have 
valuable  coal  mines,  and  these  will  greatly  aid  these  countries 
in  their  struggle  for  national  existence. 

Iron  ore  is  more  widely  distributed  than  coal.  Great  Britain 
produces  about  half  of  the  iron  ore  she  uses.  France  now  has 
more  than  her  industries  demand,  for  she  again  has  the  mines 
of  Lorraine,  which  Germany  developed  into  the  largest  producers 
in  Europe.  Germany  lost  her  best  mines  and  will  not  have  enough 
for  her  own  needs,  a severe  blow  to  her  industries.  Some  of  the 
best  iron  deposits  of  Austria-Hungary  were  in  Styria  and  these 
now  belong  to  the  new  republic  of  Austria.  Russia  and  Swe- 
den have  exceedingly  valuable  beds  of  the  highest  grade,  but 
most  of  the  Swedish  ore  must  be  exported  because  of  lack  of  coal 
to  smelt  it.  Spain  has  important  iron  mines,  especially  in  the 
north  near  the  Bay  of  Biscay ; the  larger  part  of  this  goes  to  the 
British  Isles  for  smelting  and  for  use  in  manufacturing.  Italy 
mines  a little  iron  but  not  enough  for  her  own  needs.  Norway, 
Denmark,  Holland,  Switzerland,  Portugal,  and  the  Balkan  Pen- 
insula either  yield  no  iron  ore  or  yield  very  little.  Taken  as  a 
whole,  Europe  is  the  greatest  producer  of  coal  and  iron  among 
the  continents,  in  fact,  produces  as  much  as  all  the  rest  of  the 
world.  This  is  another  of  the  reasons  for  the  place  of  leadership 
which  Europe  occupies. 

Petroleum.  — Outside  of  the  important  Russian  oil  fields  of 
Baku  on  the  shore  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  Europe  produces  com- 
paratively little  petroleum.  A moderate  amount  is  obtained  in 
Rumania  and  a still  smaller  amount  in  Galicia  and  Alsace.  The 
Russian  field  is  an  uncertain  producer  and  Europe  is  depending 
mainly  upon  the  United  States  and  Mexico  for  petroleum  and 
its  products. 

Copper,  lead,  and  zinc  are  mined  in  considerable  amounts  in 
Spain  and  in  Germany.  Russia  has  copper  deposits  and  Italy 
has  valuable  zinc  deposits  in  Sardinia,  but  the  largest  zinc  mines 


CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 


509 


of  Europe  are  in  upper  Silesia,  which  have  been  divided  between 
Poland  and  Germany. 

Silver,  Gold,  and  Platinum.  — Though  Europe  has  nearly  all 
other  minerals,  it  produces  so  little  gold  and  silver  that  they 
scarcely  deserve  mention,  but  this  lack  is  of  small  importance, 
for  these  metals  pass  from  country  to  country  with  great  ease. 
Most  of  the  world’s  platinum  — more  valuable  than  an  equal 
weight  of  gold  — came  in  the  past  from  the  Ural  region  of  Russia. 

Nonmetallic  Minerals.  — These  include  the  various  kinds  of 
salts,  the  building  stones,  clay,  etc.  Some  of  these  are  found  in 
almost  every  country.  There  are  wonderful  deposits  of  common 
salt  in  Poland.  Germany  has  almost  a monopoly  of  potash  salts, 
but  lost  one  important  deposit  when  Alsace  was  ceded  back  to 
France.  Statuary  marble  of  great  purity  and  whiteness  is  found 
in  certain  islands  south  of  Greece  and  in  Italy.  Porcelain  clays 
of  the  finest  quality  are  found  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  notably 
France,  Holland,  Austria,  and  Germany ; famous  porcelains  are 
manufactured  in  each  of  these  countries.  Great  quantities  of 
sulphur  are  obtained  from  the  volcanic  region  of  Sicily.  Other 
minor  minerals  are  obtained  in  Europe  but  they  cannot  be 
named  in  detail  here. 

Food  Production  in  Europe.  — Europe,  as  a whole,  is  a great 
producer  of  food.  This  has  been  made  necessary  by  the  dense 
population.  The  United  States  produces  more  food  than  any 
European  country,  yet  Europe  as  a whole  produces  more  than 
any  other  continent.  With  the  exception  of  the  Mediterranean 
region,  the  crops  of  Europe  are  much  the  same  as  those  of  the 
northern  United  States.  Wheat  and  rye  are  the  great  bread- 
stuffs  (Figs.  353,  354) ; corn  is  confined  mainly  to  the  Po  Valley, 
the  Danubian  region,  and  southern  Russia.  Ten  times  as  many 
potatoes  and  several  times  as  many  sugar  beets  are  grown  in 
Europe  as  in  North  America  (Fig.  355).  Barley  and  oats  are 
important,  but  mainly  for  animals.  The  raising  of  live  stock 
for  milk,  meat,  hides,  and  skins  is  an  important  occupation  in 
nearly  every  European  country. 

Land  in  central  and  western  Europe  is  much  more  carefully 


510 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


cultivated  than  in  the  United  States.  In  parts  (Belgium,  for 
example)  spade  agriculture  is  common,  and  the  land  is  made  to 
yield  very  large  crops.  In  Russia,  Poland,  Denmark,  Ireland, 
Hungary,  Rumania,  the  Balkan  States,  Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal, 


Fig.  353.  — Distribution  of  wheat  production  in  Europe.  (U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 

agriculture  is  the  leading  occupation  of  the  people.  In  Germany, 
Holland,  France,  and  Sweden  it  occupies  from  one-third  to  one- 
half  of  the  population.  In  Great  Britain,  Belgium,  and  Swit- 
zerland it  is  less  important  than  manufacturing.  Even  in  Eng- 
land, Belgium,  northern  France,  and  in  western  Germany,  where 
manufacturing  towns  are  so  numerous,  the  agricultural  land  is 
intensively  cultivated.  LTnder  normal  conditions,  eastern  Eu- 
rope produces  a surplus  of  foodstuffs ; middle  Europe  is  nearly 
self-sufficient,  but  western  Europe  must  import  food  in  large 
quantities.  Great  Britain  produces  only  one-fourth  to  one-third 
of  the  food  that  her  people  require.  Europe  is  the  chief  buyer 
of  the  world’s  surplus  food  products. 

The  Forests  and  Forest  Industries.  — Aside  from  some  of  the 
Mediterranean  lands  and  the  southern  third  of  Russia,  most  of 


CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 


511 


Europe  was  originally  covered  with  forests,  as  lands  usually  are 
where  rainfall  is  ample.  Gradually  these  forests  have  been  cut 
off  wherever  the  land  was  suitable  for  crops,  for  the  increasing 
population  demanded  more  and  more  food.  The  only  great  for- 


Fig.  354.  — Two-thirds  of  the  rye  of  the  world  is  grown  in  Germany  and  Russia, 
where  it  is  the  chief  breadstuff  of  the  people.  ( U . S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 

est  areas  left  are  those  of  Sweden,  Finland,  and  northern  Russia, 
which  supply  the  major  part  of  the  export  timber  of  Europe.  The 
mountainous  portions  of  other  countries  still  retain  more  or  less 
of  their  forests,  but  western  Europe  imports  a large  part  of  its  lum- 
ber, timber,  and  other  wood  products.  So  keenly  have  Germany, 
France,  and  Switzerland  felt  their  lack  of  timber  that  they  are 
reforesting  their  nonagricultural  lands.  In  Germany  the  for- 
ests have  been  managed  with  exceptional  care,  a tree  being  planted 
whenever  one  was  removed.  Americans,  who  use  wood,  lumber, 
and  timber  extensively,  do  not  appreciate  how  carefully  wood 
is  conserved  in  many  European  countries,  where  peasant  women 
go  to  the  woods  and  gather  up  little  twigs  scarcely  larger  than 
a lead  pencil  and  carry  them  home  for  fuel.  With  us  wood  for 


512 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


fuel  is  sold  by  the  cord ; in  parts  of  Europe  it  is  quite  commonly 
sold  in  little  bundles. 

Most  paper  is  now  made  from  wood  pulp.  Sweden  and  Fin- 
land are  exporters,  while  Germany  and  Austria-Hungary  were 
in  the  past  also  important  producers  ; most  of  the  other  European 
countries  are  importers. 

Railways  in  Europe.  — Railways  are  one  of  the  best  evidences 
of  a country’s  progress.  No  modern  country  can  be  highly  de- 


Fig.  355.  — In  normal  times,  great  quantities  of  sugar  beets  are  grown  in  France, 
Germany,  Russia,  and  adjacent  countries.  Before  the  World  War  about  half 
of  the  world ’s  sugar  was  made  from  cane  and  half  from  beets.  {U . S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


veloped  without  a network  of  railways,  and  the  modern  de- 
velopment of  a country  usually  is  in  proportion  to  the  develop- 
ment of  its  railways.  The  British  Isles,  France,  Germany, 
Belgium,  Holland,  southern  Sweden,  northern  Italy,  Austria,  and 
Switzerland  have  very  complete  railroad  systems,  including  trunk 
lines  and  branch  lines.  Outside  of  the  British  Isles  the  majority 
of  the  railways  are  owned  and  operated  by  the  various  govern- 
ments. In  Spain,  Norway,  Russia,  and  the  Balkan  States,  rail- 


CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 


513 


road  building  has  not  progressed  so  far  as  in  the  countries 
mentioned  in  the  first  group.  Naturally  in  a country  like  Rus- 
sia there  are  large  areas  without  railways.  As  a whole,  Europe 
is  not  so  well  supplied  with  railways  as  the  United  States. 
Europe  has  somewhat  more  than  200,000  miles  of  lines  in  an 
area  of  over  4,000,000  square  miles,  while  the  United  States  has 
260,000  miles  in  an  area  of  3,000,000  square  miles. 

Manufacturing  in  Europe.  — It  is  well  known  that  as  coun- 
tries progress  they  engage  more  and  more  in  manufacturing.  The 
extent  to  which  this  can  be  carried  depends  partly  upon  their 
supplies  of  coal  and  iron.  It  has  been  pointed  out  that  eastern 
and  southeastern  Europe  are  predominantly  agricultural.  In 
Russia,  Hungary,  the  Balkan  States,  Spain,  and  Portugal  manu- 
facturing is  decidedly  second  to  agriculture.  The  new  state  of 
Czechoslovakia,  northern  Italy,  Poland,  and  southern  Sweden 
are  well  advanced  in  manufacturing.  France,  Germany,  and 
Holland  have  reached  the  stage  where  their  interests  are  as  largely 
in  manufacturing  as  in  agriculture,  while  England,  Belgium, 
and,  to  a lesser  degree,  Switzerland,  are  industrial  countries.  In 
general,  the  manufacturing  centers  are  on  or  near  the  coal  fields, 
though  this  is  not  always  true;  for  example,  Switzerland,  north- 
ern Italy,  and  Holland  import  their  coal.  Manufacturing  leads 
to  large  cities  and  a congested  population.  From  the  map  (Fig. 
352),  the  section  where  manufacturing  is  most  highly  developed 
may  be  judged  from  the  amount  of  coal  produced.  No  single 
country  in  Europe  does  even  one-half  as  much  manufacturing 
as  the  United  States,  yet  middle  and  western  Europe  as  a 
region  have  nearly  three  times  the  population  and  do  twice  as 
much  manufacturing  as  the  United  States.  Among  the  continents 
Europe  is  the  leader  in  manufacturing,  as  it  is  in  agriculture. 

The  Foreign  Commerce  of  Europe.- — There  are  upwards  of 
twenty-five  different  nations  in  Europe ; leaving  out  Russia,  all 
of  the  others  together  do  not  equal  the  United  States  in  area. 
There  are  so  many  different  nations  that  a large  proportion  of 
their  commerce  passes  from  one  country  to  another  and  hence 
is  recorded  as  foreign  commerce.  In  the  United  States  where  48 


514 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


states  belong  to  one  nation  the  commerce  is  very  largely  from  state 
to  state  and  is  not  counted  as  foreign  commerce.  Partly  for  this 
reason  and  partly  because  of  an  early  start  Europe  is  the  fore- 
most continent  in  foreign  trade ; in  fact,  it  carries  on  more  than 
all  the  other  continents  combined.  Relatively  new  countries 
like  the  United  States,  Argentina,  Brazil,  and  Australia  are  likely 
to  export  more  than  they  import,  while  older  and  more  densely 
populated  countries  like  most  of  those  of  Europe  are  likely  to 
import  more  than  they  export. 

In  normal  times,  the  foreign  trade  of  the  United  Kingdom  ex- 
ceeds 6 billion  dollars.  In  1913,  the  last  full  year  before  the 
War,  that  of  Germany  reached  nearly  5 billion  dollars ; that 
of  France,  Holland,  Belgium,  Russia,  Austria-Hungary,  and  Italy 
(in  this  order)  ranged  from  3 billion  down  to  1 billion  dollars 
respectively.  A large  part  of  the  exports  from  western  Europe 
consists  of  manufactures,  while  the  imports  are  most  largely 
foodstuffs  and  raw  materials  to  be  used  in  manufacturing.  Rus- 
sia and  southeastern  Europe,  however,  export  foodstuffs  and  raw 
materials  and  import  manufactures. 

The  great  commercial  ports  of  Europe  are  London  and  Liver- 
pool in  England,  Hamburg  and  Bremen  in  Germany,  Antwerp 
in  Belgium,  Rotterdam  in  Holland,  Marseilles  and  Havre  in  France. 
Locate  these  on  a map.  (Fig.  348.) 

France 

Rank  among  the  Nations.  — For  hundreds  of  years  France 
was  the  leading  nation  of  the  world ; the  French  language  was 
the  court  language  of  Europe.  French  literature,  art,  manners, 
and  education  were  regarded  as  standards  of  excellence.  The 
long  series  of  wars  with  England  finally  ended  wdth  the  defeat 
of  Napoleon  at  Waterloo  in  1815,  and  since  that  time  France  has 
not  occupied  the  place  of  leadership  which  she  so  long  held.  The 
crushing  defeat  of  the  French  armies  by  Germany  in  1871  still 
further  reduced  the  prestige  of  France,  but  it  has  been  partly 
regained  by  her  victory  in  the  World  War. 


CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 


515 


In  many  respects  the  French  still  hold  an  advanced  position 
among  European  peoples  : they  are  intellectually  keen  and  alert ; 
their  schools  and  universities  produce  men  of  very  fine  scholar- 
ship ; their  manufactures  are  peculiarly  artistic ; the  people  are 
fond  of  pleasure  and 
gayety,  yet  exceedingly 
thrifty.  No  other  peo- 
ple have  such  an  in- 
grained habit  of  saving 
as  have  the  French, 
and  as  a result  France' 
became  a very  wealthy 
nation,  though  the 
losses  arising  from 
the  late  war  were 
terrible. 

The  French  seem  to 
lack  either  the  capacity 
or  the  daring  to  under- 
take commercial  and 
industrial  enterprises 

on  the  large  scale  ern-  Fig.  356.  - — Location  of  the  coal  deposits  of  France, 
ployed  by  the  Ameri-  (After  Blanchard.) 

cans,  the  British,  and  the  Germans;  they  did,  however,  build 
the  Suez  Canal.  The  high  position  among  the  nations  held 
by  the  French  is  due  more  to  their  intellectual  and  artistic 
qualities  than  to  the  magnitude  of  their  undertakings.  From 
the  days  of  Lafayette  down  to  the  present,  France  and  the 
LTnited  States  have  been  warm  friends,  and  our  entrance  into 
the  World  War  was  partly  due  to  that  friendship. 

Favorable  Conditions.  — As  a country  France  has  certain  im- 
portant geographical  advantages  ; among  them  are  : 

(1)  A superior  geographical  situation 

(2)  An  excellent  climate 

(3)  A high  proportion  of  agricultural  land 


516 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


(4)  Very  large  resources  of  iron,  considerable  coal,  and  great 
potential  water  power. 

In  addition  to  these  gifts  of  nature,  France  has  built  (5)  one  of 
the  finest  systems  of  highways  in  the  world,  (6)  an  excellent  system 
of  inland  waterways,  (7)  an  excellent  system  of  railroads,  (8)  has 
achieved  a foremost  place  in  high-grade  manufactures,  and  (9)  has 
acquired  colonial  possessions  second  only  to  those  of  Great 
Britain. 

Geographical  Position.  — France  has  a most  excellent  posi- 
tion for  ocean  commerce,  for  the  country  touches  the  English 
Channel,  the  Atlantic,  and  the  Mediterranean.  The  only  easy 
natural  route  from  the  Mediterranean  to  northwestern  Europe 
is  through  France  by  way  of  the  Rhone-Saone  Valley.  France 
is  lacking  in  first-class  natural  harbors,  but  extensive  improve- 
ments have  been  carried  out  at  Marseilles,  Havre,  Bordeaux, 
Brest,  and  several  other  ports,  making  them  serve  well  the  needs 
of  commerce. 

Advantages  of  Climate.  — With  the  exception  of  the  large  num- 
ber of  rainy  days  in  northern  France  (200  a year),  the  climate 
is  one  of  the  best  in  Europe.  The  Mediterranean  coastal  region 
has  dry  summers  and  much  sunshine ; here  the  rain  falls  chiefly 
in  winter.  In  most  of  France  the  westerlies,  blowing  off  the  At- 
lantic, make  both  the  summers  and  the  winters  mild  and  give  plenty 
of  rainfall  for  agriculture.  All  of  France  is  farther  north  than 
Chicago  or  New  York. 

Mineral  Wealth.  — With  the  exception  of  iron,  France  is  not 
rich  in  minerals.  Even  with  the  Sarre  coal  fields  obtained  from 
Germany,  France  will  not  have  enough  coal  for  her  needs.  The 
principal  coal  fields  are  in  the  extreme  northeast,  extending  into 
Belgium ; smaller  deposits  are  found  in  several  other  parts  of 
the  country  (Fig.  356).  When  Lorraine  was  ceded  back  to  France 
in  1918,  France  came  into  possession  of  the  chief  iron  ore  fields 
of  Germany  and  now  has  an  abundance  of  iron.  France  is  one 
of  the  leading  producers  of  aluminum  in  the  world  and  has  pot- 
tery clays  of  the  finest  quality. 

Food  Production.  — Nearly  one-half  of  France  is  agricultural 


CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 


517 


land  and  one-fifth  is  pasture ; only  15  per  cent  is  waste  land.  The 
Paris  Basin  is  the  garden  spot  of  the  country  and  one  of  the  very 
best  agricultural  sections  of  Europe.  The  French  soil  as  a whole 
is  far  more  fertile  than  that  of  Germany.  French  farmers  are 
very  industrious  and 
famously  thrifty,  but 
not  scientific ; yet  the 
country  produces  about 
75  per  cent  of  the 
food  that  it  uses. 

Wheat  is  the  principal 
crop ; in  fact,  France 
is  one  of  the  leading 
wheat  growers  of  the 
world  (Fig.  353).  All 
of  the  other  grains  are 
raised,  including  corn 
(in  the  south) . More  po- 
tatoes and  sugar  beets 
are  raised  than  in  the 
United  States  (Fig. 

355).  France  has  large  Fig-  357 • 
numbers  of  sheep, 
cattle,  and  horses,  yet  is  not  a leader  in  the  raising  of  live 
stock.  France  is  to  a large  extent  an  agricultural  country ; over 
40  per  cent  of  her  people  are  engaged  in  farming,  as  against  8 per 
cent  in  Great  Britain.  No  less  important  is  the  fact  that  80 
per  cent  of  the  farms  are  cultivated  by  their  owners  and  not  by 
tenants. 

The  Vineyards.  — These  are  the  most  important  in  any  country. 
They  are  found  especially  in  the  valleys  of  the  south  and  west, 
but  the  famous  vineyards  of  Champagne  are  in  the  east  of  France 
(Fig.  357).  In  a normal  year  France  makes  upwards  of  a billion 
gallons  of  wine  and  consumes  even  a greater  amount ; more  is 
imported  than  is  exported.  The  French  vineyards  produce  an 
average  of  500  pounds  of  grapes  for  every  person  in  the  country. 


■ Principal  wine  regions 
( After  Blanchard.) 


of  France. 


518 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


French  Manufactures.  — French  goods  are  famous  for  their 
fineness,  beauty,  artistic  finish,  and  superior  style.  French  silks, 
velvets,  tapestries,  laces,  fine  cottons  and  woolens,  millinery, 
porcelain,  and  art  goods  are,  as  a whole,  the  most  beautiful  made 
by  any  people.  A large  proportion  of  the  French  exports  are 


Fig.  358.  — The  beet  sugar  region  of  northeastern  France,  almost  wholly  within 
the  battle  lines  during  the  World  War.  Each  dot  represents  a sugar  factory. 
0 Courtesy  Am.  Sugar  Ref.  Co.) 


luxuries  rather  than  necessities.  In  total  value  of  manufactures 
France  now  ranks  third,  following  the  United  States  and  the 
United  Kingdom.  Lyon  and  the  surrounding  region  is  devoted 
to  the  manufacturing  of  silks.  Marseille  specializes  in  olive  oil. 
soaps,  and  other  oil  products.  The  great  manufacturing  section., 
however,  is  in  the  northeast,  extending  from  Paris  to  the  Belgian 
boundary  (Fig.  358). 

Foreign  Trade.  — In  value  of  foreign  trade  France  ranks  third 
among  the  nations,  yet  it  is  far  below  that  of  the  United  States 
and  the  United  Kingdom  and  is  below  what  might  be  expected 
of  a country  so  ideally  situated  as  France  is.  The  French  have 
not  pushed  their  foreign  trade  so  vigorously  as  the  English  and 
Americans  have,  perhaps  because  the  French  business  man  is 


CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 


519 


Fig.  359.  The  beautiful  City  of  Nice  on  the  Mediterranean  coast  of  France.  ( Physiography  Lab.  Cornell  Univ.) 


520 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


content  with  a modest  fortune  and  likes  to  enjoy  it  while  he  lives. 
As  in  most  European  countries,  the  imports  exceed  the  exports ; 
the  latter  are  mainly  luxuries,  such  as  silks,  fine  cotton  and  woolen 
fabrics,  wines,  automobiles,  art  goods,  etc.  The  chief  imports 
are  quite  the  opposite  in  character,  being  bulky  raw  materials, 
such  as  wool,  cotton,  grain,  coal,  coke,  and  the  metals. 

Cities.  — To  a remarkable  degree  the  national  life  of  France 
centers  in  Paris,  the  third  city  of  the  world  in  size.  It  is  near 
the  center  of  the  rich  Paris  Basin,  the  chief  agricultural  and  in- 
dustrial section  of  the  country.  It  is  noted  for  its  beauty  and 
gayety  and  probably  is  visited  by  more  foreigners  than  any  other 
city  in  the  world.  Marseille,  on  the  Mediterranean,  is  the  chief 
port  of  France,  followed  by  Havre  on  the  English  Channel ; Lyon 
and  vicinity  are  famous  for  silk  manufacturing  and  Bordeaux  for  its 
wine  trade.  Rouen,  Lille,  Boulogne,  Calais,  Nice  (Fig.  359),  Brest, 
Metz,  Strassburg,  Reims,  and  Verdun  should  be  located  on  a map. 

French  Colonies.  — These  are  chiefly  in  Africa  and  include 
Tunis,  Algeria,  Morocco,  most  of  the  Sahara,  and  tropical  colo- 
nies reaching  to  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  ; also  the  large  island  of  Mada- 
gascar (Fig.  298).  Besides  these,  France  holds  French  Indo-China 
in  southeastern  Asia,  French  Guiana  in  South  America,  and  vari- 
ous islands.  Next  to  Great  Britain,  France  is  the  leading  colo- 
nial power  of  the  world.  The  colonies  on  the  Mediterranean 
in  North  Africa,  particularly  Algeria,  are  the  most  valuable  and- 
are  making  notable  progress  under  French  rule. 

Summary 

France  is  smaller  than  Texas  in  area,  has  about  40,000,000  people, 
40  per  cent  of  whom  live  on  farms.  The  French  are  famous  for 
their  patriotism,  their  thrift,  their  workmanship,  their  gayety,  and 
their  intellectual  achievements.  France  has  an  ideal  situation  for 
ocean  commerce,  has  a large  proportion  of  fertile  land,  a good  cli- 
mate, abundance  of  iron  (but  not  of  coal),  and  a long  coast  line  with 
fair  natural  harbors.  Her  manufactures  are  renowned  for  their  artis- 
tic finish ; her  foreign  trade  is  large  but  not  so  large  as  might  be  ex- 
pected ; her  colonial  empire  is  second  only  to  that  of  Great  Britain. 


CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 


521 


Germany 

The  Ruin  of  Germany.  — In  the  years  preceding  1914  Germany 
had  become  one  of  the  greatest  nations  in  the  world.  In  indus- 
try, in  commerce,  in  science,  in  education,  and  in  nearly  all  other 
fields  of  activity,  Germany  was  in  the  very  front  rank  of  nations. 


Fig.  360.  — Some  of  the  geographical  changes  in  Germany  resulting  from  the  World 
War.  {Modified  from  map  in  Journal  of  Geography , Sept.,  1919.) 


Had  the  nation  continued  its  peaceful  course  it  seems  unques- 
tionable that  Germany  would  have  become  the  leading  nation 
of  the  world.  But  the  warlike  spirit  and  the  ambitions  of  her 
ruling  class  plunged  the  world  into  the  most  terrible  .war  of  all 
time,  and  Germany  emerged  from  it  almost  wrecked.  By  the 
terms  of  the  peace  treaty  Alsace  and  Lorraine  were  returned  to 
France.  The  German  portion  of  Poland  was  restored  to  that 
country  (Fig.  360).  Her  navy  and  merchant  marine  and  all 
of  her  colonial  possessions  were  lost.  Most  of  her  fortifications 


522 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


were  ordered  demolished.  Her  chief  rivers  were  internationalized 
and  an  enormous  payment  for  damages  was  assessed  upon  her. 
The  old  autocratic  government  has  been  overturned  and  a re- 
public established ; the  immediate  future  is  uncertain,  but  the 
German  people  remain  and  will  probably  again  become  powerful 
in  Europe. 

Geographical  Conditions.  — Germany  has  a present  area  of 
considerably  less  than  200,000  square  miles  and  a popula- 
tion of  about  60,000,000.  The  northern  half  of  the  country  is 
a sandy  plain,  naturally  infertile  but  intelligently  cultivated. 
The  southern  half  is  more  or  less  mountainous.  The  climate  is 
much  like  that  of  the  central  United  States ; the  winters  are  most 
severe  in  the  east,  for  western  Germany  feels  the  tempering  in- 
fluence of  the  winds  from  the  Atlantic.  The  rainfall  is  everywhere 
sufficient  for  agriculture.  The  Baltic  seacoast  is  low  and  sandy 
and  poorly  suited  to  ocean  commerce.  The  short  strip  of  coast 
on  the  North  Sea  carried  on  most  of  the  sea-borne  trade,  mainly 
through  the  ports  of  Hamburg  and  Bremen,  but  also  through 
ports  in  Belgium  and  Holland.  The  rivers  flow  from  south  to 
north  across  the  country  and  are  much  used  for  navigation ; this 
is  especially  true  of  the  Pdiine.  (See  page  163.)  Germany  has 
the  best  system  of  internal  waterways  in  Europe,  but  by  the  terms 
of  the  peace  treaty  the  larger  rivers  are  internationalized.  Lying 
in  the  very  heart  of  Europe  and  touching  most  of  the  principal 
countries  of  the  continent,  Germany  has  an  excellent  position  for 
overland  commerce. 

Minerals  and  Forests.  — Germany  still  has  much  coal,  though 
some  was  lost  by  the  war ; the  best  of  her  iron  ore  deposits,  those 
of  Lorraine,  also  were  lost.  Enough  coal,  but  not  enough  iron  ore, 
remains  for  the  country’s  immediate  needs.  The  only  important 
potash  deposits  in  the  world  are  in  Germany,  and  the  more  val- 
uable of  these  beds  (at  Stassfurt)  are  still  retained.  Copper, 
lead,  zinc,  a little  petroleum,  and  several  other  minerals  are  pro- 
duced. Most  of  the  nonagricultural  or  nongrazing  land  is  de- 
voted to  forests  carefully  managed  by  government  officials. 

Agriculture.  While  Germany  has  become  a great  manufac- 


CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 


523 


turing  country,  agriculture  is  still  the  occupation  of  about  40 
per  cent  of  the  people.  Enormous  quantities  of  potatoes,  rye,  and 
sugar  beets  are  produced.  Under  normal  conditions  Germany 
produces  four  times  as  many  potatoes  (Fig.  361),  three  times  as 


Fig.  361.  ■ — Over  90  per  cent  of  the  potatoes  of  the  world  are  grown  in  Europe. 
Germany  alone,  under  normal  conditions,  produced  nearly  five  times  as  many 
as  the  United  States.  ( U . S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


many  sugar  beets  (Fig.  355),  and  fifteen  times  as  much  rye  (Fig. 
354)  as  the  United  States,  but  only  one-seventh  as  much  wheat 
and  almost  no  corn.  All  the  crops  of  cool  temperate  climates  are 
grown,  and  the  country  is  normally  able  to  produce  from  75 
to  80  per  cent  of  the  food  that  its  people  require.  Farm  labor 
is  done  by  women  as  well  as  by  men,  as  it  is  throughout  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe ; on  the  whole,  agriculture  in  Germany  is  con- 
ducted on  a more  scientific  basis  than  in  most  other  countries. 

Manufacturing.  — Before  the  war  Germany  ranked  third  as 
a manufacturing  nation  and  was  rapidly  rising  to  second  place. 
The  working  of  iron  and  steel  and  the  making  of  textiles  were  the 
leading  industries,  as  they  are  in  nearly  all  manufacturing  nations. 
Germany  led  the  world  in  the  manufacture  of  dyes,  chemicals, 
and  beet  sugar.  Shipbuilding  had  become  a great  industry, 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  guns  of  all  kinds  no  country  equaled 
her.  In  manufacturing,  as  in  all  other  industries,  Germany  made 
full  use  of  scientific  men  and  of  scientific  methods,  and  to  this 


524 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


practice  much  of  her  success  was  due.  Following  the  war  most 
industries  were  at  low  ebb,  but  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  a 
people  as  industrious  as  the  Germans  will  again  build  up  their 
industries  and  their  commerce. 

Cities.  — Germany  is  a country  of  many  large  cities.  There 
are  no  less  than  40  that  have  more  than  one  hundred  thousand 


population.  Berlin  grew  nearly  as  fast  as  Chicago  and  has  a pop- 
ulation of  over  two  millions ; Hamburg , the  chief  port,  has  a mil- 
lion ; and  Leipzig,  Breslau,  Cologne,  Dresden,  and  Munich  have 
over  half  a million  each.  Essen,  in  the  Ruhr  coal  district,  was 
the  seat  of  the  great  Ivrupp  gun  works. 

Summary 

In  almost  every  field  of  human  endeavor  Germany  occupied  a 
leading  position.  With  abundant  resources  of  coal,  iron,  and 
potash,  and  considerable  resources  of  other  minerals,  an  invigorat- 
ing climate,  central  position,  strong  government,  the  best  of 


CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 


525 


Fig.  363.  — Scene  in  the  beautiful  valley  of  the  Moselle,  flowing  from  France  into  Germany. 


526 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


educational  facilities,  and  a gifted  people,  Germany  might  by 
peaceful  methods  have  become  the  foremost  nation  in  the  world. 
Her  agricidture,  mining,  manufacturing,  and  forestry  methods 
were  thoroughly  scientific.  Her  rail  and  inland  water  transporta- 
tion was  highly  perfected.  Her  manufacturing  industries  and 


Fig.  364.  — Scene  along  the  Meuse  at  Namur,  Belgium.  This  valley  formed  the 
route  of  the  invading  German  army  in  1914.  (©  Keystone  View  Co.) 

foreign  trade  were  rapidly  rising  to  first  place  in  Europe.  But  her 
territory  was  too  small  to  satisfy  her  rulers,  who  risked  all  in  a 
disastrous  war,  and  lost. 

Belgium  and  the  Netherlands 

These  two  little  countries,  each  about  as  large  as  Maryland, 
occupy  strategic  but  dangerous  geographical  positions.  For  com- 
merce they  are  favorably  situated,  and  before  the  war  each  had 
a larger  foreign  trade  than  Russia.  Their  position  is  danger- 


CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 


527 


ous  because  they  lie  in  a part  of  Europe  where  the  conflicting 
interests  of  great  nations  meet.  We  know  what  happened  to  Bel- 
gium in  the  recent  war,  and  we  can  understand  what  a perilous  po- 
sition a little  country  occupies  when  it  lies  between  powerful  rivals. 

Belgium  is  one  of  the  most  highly  developed  manufacturing 
countries  in  Europe,  and  the  most  densely  populated,  having  an 
average  of  one  person  for  every  acre  of  land.  It  is  sometimes  called 
the  “Workshop  of  Europe” 
because  of  its  many  factories. 

Moreover,  Belgium  is  one  of 
the  most  carefully  tilled  parts 
of  Europe ; 60  per  cent  of 
the  country  is  under  inten- 
sive cultivation.  The  amount 
of  foodstuffs  that  the  little 
country  produces  is  almost 
past  belief.  Much  of  the 
cultivation  is  done  by  hand  ; 
there  are  over  500,000  little 
farms  of  less  than  2|  acres 
each.  The  yield  of  wheat 
per  acre  is  about  three  times 
the  average  in  the  United 
States,  and  sugar  beets  and 
potatoes  yield  very  heavily 
under  the  careful  cultivation  which  they  receive. 

Antwerp,  one  of  the  foremost  ports  of  the  world,  is  not  on 
the  coast,  which  is  low  and  sandy,  but  on  the  Scheldt  River, 
which  flows  through  Holland  to  the  sea.  Brussels,  the  capi- 
tal, is  a great  industrial  center.  Under  normal  conditions  Bel- 
gium has  a foreign  trade  of  nearly  $2,000,000,000  a year. 

Holland  occupies  the  delta  of  the  Rhine.  A quarter  of  it  is 
below  sea  level  and  has  to  be  protected  from  inundation  by  means 
of  dikes  (Fig.  365).  The  ceaseless  fight  against  the  sea  which 
plucky  little  Holland  has  kept  up  for  centuries  has  called  forth  the 
admiration  of  the  world.  Projects  are  now  under  way  to  reclaim 


Fig.  365.  — Map  showing  elevations  of  the 
land  of  Holland.  ( Tarr  and  McMurry.) 


528 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


a part  of  the  Zuider  Zee.  Canals  and  navigable  rivers  traverse 
the  country  in  every  direction  and  a tenth  of  the  people  live  on 
barges.  The  polders  (diked  lands  below  sea  level)  are  kept  drained 
by  constant  pumping.  There  are  no  minerals  except  clay  and  a 
very  little  coal,  hence  the  country  has  made  less  progress  in  manu- 
facturing than  Belgium.  A quarter  of  the  land  is  devoted  to  crops 
and  a third  to  pastures.  Agriculture  and  dairying  and  the  raising 
of  a great  variety  of  flower  bulbs  for  export  are  characteristic  in- 
dustries. Commerce,  shipbuilding,  and  fishing  employ  a large 
number  of  the  people.  Holland  owns  the  chief  islands  of  the  East 
Indies,  the  most  prosperous  and  productive  tropical  colonies  in  the 
world.  This  valuable  East  Indian  trade,  however,  is  only  a part 
of  the  extensive  commerce  carried  on  by  Dutch  merchants.  In 
proportion  to  size  and  population,  Holland  is  a wealthy  nation. 
It  is  to  be  remembered  for  its  fine  dairy  cattle  and  dairy  products, 
its  proverbial  cleanliness,  its  long  fight  with  the  sea,  its  valuable 
colonies,  and  its  remarkably  large  commerce.  Locate  Rotterdam, 
Amsterdam,  and  The  Hague.  For  what  is  The  Hague  noted? 

The  Scandinavian  Countries 

These  three  countries,  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark,  closely 
akin  in  race  and  language,  are  now  separate  nations,  though 
at  times  two  of  them  and  even  all  of  them  have  been  united. 

Norway  is  a land  of  nearly  barren  mountains  ; less  than  4 per  cent 
of  the  area  is  cultivated,  while  70  per  cent  is  barren.  The  forests, 
though  they  cover  a fifth  of  the  area,  are  for  the  most  part  thin 
and  poor,  and  there  are  almost  no  mineral  resources.  Norway  has 
a most  remarkable  coast,  fringed  with  thousands  of  islands  and 
notched  by  hundreds  of  fiords.  (See  page  327.)  The  coast  is  mild 
in  temperature  on  account  of  the  winds  from  the  Atlantic.  (See 
page  306.)  Even  the  port  of  Hammerfest,  beyond  the  Arctic 
circle,  is  ice-free  the  year  around.  So  far  north  is  Norway  that  at 
North  Cape  daylight  is  continuous  for  73  days  in  summer,  and 
night  is  continuous  for  73  days  in  winter.  Nowhere  in  Norway 
does  actual  darkness  exist  during  the  middle  weeks  of  summer, 
for  the  twilight  and  the  dawn  extend  throughout  the  short  nights. 


CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 


529 


There  is  a great  amount  of  water  power,  as  yet  only  partially 
used,  but  little  manufacturing  is  done.  The  land  of  Norway  of- 
fers few  opportunities  and,  as  a result,  the  Norwegians  long  ago 
took  to  the  sea  and  became  famous  boat  builders  and  mariners. 


Fig.  366.  — Map  showing  the  glaciated  portion  of  Europe.  Arrows  indicate  the 
general  direction  of  ice  movement. 


The  Northmen  of  the  Middle  Ages  were  the  sea  rovers  (Vikings) 
and  pirates  of  their  time.  The  present  Norwegians  are  one  of  the 
principal  seafaring  peoples  of  Europe.  Thousands  of  them  are  on 
the  ships  of  other  nations,  and  the  Norwegian  merchant  fleet,  in 
proportion  to  the  population  of  the  home  country,  is  the  largest 
in  the  world.  The  total  population  of  Norway  is  less  than  that  of 
Chicago  and  the  capital,  Christiania,  is  a city  of  250,000. 

Sweden  is  larger  than  Norway,  has  greater  resources  and  more 
than  double  the  population.  The  southern  third  is  agricultural 
land  of  good  quality.  Over  half  of  Sweden  is  forested.  The  iron 
deposits  are  among  the  most  valuable  in  Europe,  though  the  prin- 
cipal mines  are  beyond  the  Arctic  circle.  The  forests  are  the  lead- 
ing source  of  wealth,  and  the  production  of  lumber,  timber,  pulp, 
and  paper  is  the  largest  industry ; as  an  exporter  of  lumber,  tim- 


530 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


ber,  and  other  forest  products  Sweden  ranks  next  to  the  United 
States;  for  example,  there  are  180  pulp  mills  and  80  paper  mills 
in  the  country.  Manufacturing,  especially  in  the  south,  has  under- 
gone a notable  development  in  recent  years.  Sweden  has  great 
water  power  possibilities  but  very  little  coal.  About  half  of  the 
people  are  engaged  in  agriculture,  though  only  nine  per  cent 
of  the  total  area  is  cultivated.  Stockholm,  the  capital,  has  over 
400,000  population. 

Denmark  is  a small,  flat,  sandy  country  whose  population  of 
less  than  3,000,000  has  made  a remarkable  success  of  dairy  farm- 
ing. Danish  butter,  eggs,  and  bacon  bring  the  highest  prices  in  the 
London  market ; it  is  said  that  Denmark  supplies  the  Londoner’s 
breakfast.  Because  of  the  intelligent  cooperative  methods  em- 
ployed by  her  people  in  preparing  and  marketing  their  products, 
Denmark,  though  very  poor  in  resources,  has  become  a prosperous 
country.  There  are  no  mineral  resources,  no  forest  resources,  no 
water  power,  and  not  a great  deal  of  manufacturing ; but  in  a nor- 
mal year  little  Denmark  exports  200,000,000  pounds  of  butter, 
250,000,000  pounds  of  bacon,  and  830,000,000  worth  of  eggs.  Ex- 
ports amount  to  |10  for  every  acre  of  land  in  the  kingdom,  so 
far  as  known,  the  highest  record  made  by  any  country.  Copen- 
hagen, the  capital,  has  a population  of  nearly  half  a million. 

Russia  and  Countries  Severed  from  It 

The  Russia  of  1914  was  one  of  the  powerful  nations  of  the  earth, 
and  its  territory  included  one-sixth  of  the  land  of  the  world.  Its 
population  estimated  at  upwards  of  150  millions  lived  under 
the  tyranny  of  an  autocratic  government.  Only  a limited  class 
received  an  education ; the  great  mass  of  the  people  were  simple- 
minded  peasants  who  gained  a living  by  crude  methods  of  agricul- 
ture; the  greater  part  of  the  land  belonged  to  the  royal  family, 
the  government,  and  the  nobility.  There  were  few  good  roads, 
but  there  was  a fair  railroad  system  with  one  long  line  reaching  en- 
tirely across  Siberia  to  the  Pacific ; this  is  the  longest  railroad  in  the 
world.  Manufacturing  was  largely  confined  to  the  western  part 
of  European  Russia. 


CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 


531 


Minerals.  — The  oil  field  at  Baku  on  the  shore  of  the  Caspian 
Sea  was  once  the  largest  producer  of  any  single  field  in  the  world, 
and  gave  Russia  second  place  in  the  production  of  petroleum. 
There  are  large  coal  resources,  the  most  productive  mines  being  in 
the  Donetz  Basin  of  southern  Russia.  The  gold  mines  of  the  Ural 
Mountains  and  of  Siberia  placed  Russia  among  the  five  leading 
gold-producing  nations.  Over  90  per  cent  of  all  the  platinum 
mined  in  the  world  came  from  the  Ural  Mountains.  Iron,  some 
of  it  of  the  highest  grade,  is  abundant.  Most  of  the  other  minerals 
were  mined  somewhere  in  the  vast  empire,  but  only  an  imperfect 
knowledge  of  the  country’s  mineral  resources  exists. 

Forests. — The  north  of  Russia  and  parts  of  Siberia  have  forests 
of  vast  extent.  Russia,  next  to  Sweden,  was  the  chief  European 
source  of  lumber  and  timber. 

Finland,  which  was  conquered  by  Russia  in  1809  and  made  a Rus- 
sian province  in  1899,  separated  itself  from  Russia  after  the  revo- 
lution of  1917  and  has  set  up  an  independent  republic  with  the  cap- 
ital at  Helsingfors.  The  country  is  larger  and  more  populous  than 
Norway  and  has  more  resources.  Many  of  the  people  are  well  ed- 
ucated and  progressive  and  all  are  very  patriotic.  There  are  ex- 
tensive forests,  but  agriculture  is  the  chief  industry. 

Poland,  which  was  divided  among  Russia,  Prussia,  and 
Austria  many  years  ago,  has  become  an  independent  republic  with 
Warsaw  as  the  capital.  Other  sections  of  Russia,  including  Estho- 
nia,  Lithuania,  Latvia,  and  Ukrainia,  have  set  up  separate  govern- 
ments, but  their  success  is  uncertain.  Poland  has  an  area  about  as 
large  as  that  of  Germany ; it  includes  excellent  farm  lands,  coal 
fields,  salt  mines,  and  manufacturing  cities.  The  Poles  are  in- 
tensely patriotic  and  include  in  their  number  a great  many  able 
men.  The  boundaries  of  Poland  are  hard  to  fix,  for  the  country 
has  no  natural  boundaries.  Poland  suffered  terribly  in  the  war 
and  it  was  for  years  in  a pitiable  condition.  It  will  have  a very 
hard  time  maintaining  a national  existence. 

Georgia  and  Azerbaijan  in  southern  Russia  and  the  Far  East- 
ern Republic  in  Siberia  detached  themselves  from  Russia  and 
set  up  independent  states. 


532 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Switzerland 

Scenery.  — The  greatest  resource  of  this  little  republic  of  the  Alps 
is  its  wondrous  scenery  (Fig.  367) ; it  includes  the  finest  ranges 
of  these  mountains  with  their  1077  glaciers.  The  Alps  occupy 
three-fifths  of  the  area  of  Switzerland,  but  the  greater  part  of  the 
people  live  in  the  lower  lands  north  of  the  Alps.  The  peaks,  the 


glaciers,  the  lakes,  the  deep  green  valleys,  the  cascading  streams, 
the  mountain  passes,  the  excellent  roads,  and  the  good  hotels 
all  combine  to  make  Switzerland  the  playground  of  Europe  and 
to  attract  hundreds  of  thousands  of  tourists  every  year.  There 
are  said  to  be  2500  hotels,  employing  50,000  servants.  Thou- 
sands of  the  Swiss  people  derive  a large  part  of  their  incomes 
from  serving  the  travelers,  and  providing  for  their  wants,  and 
from  the  sale  of  souvenirs  or  other  articles.  Visitors  left  fully 
$50,000,000  a year  in  Switzerland  prior  to  the  World  War. 


Fig.  367. 


— Among  the  Swiss  Alps  in  winter.  The  town  of  Engelberg.  ( Physi- 
ography Lab.  Cornell  TJniv.) 


CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 


533 


Other  Resources.  — Mountainous  regions  are  often  rich  in  min- 
erals, but  it  is  not  so  in  Switzerland.  The  country  has  practically 
no  mineral  wealth  — not  even  the  much  needed  coal  and  iron. 
Twenty-eight  per  cent  of  the  land  is  used  for  pasture  or  meadow 
and  half  as  much  more  can  be  cultivated,  but  this  supplies  scarcely 
half  of  the  food  which  the  4,000,000  people  need ; the  rest  is 
imported.  The  climate  is  damp,  the  rainfall  heavy,  and  the  land 
rugged ; all  this  makes  the  pasturing  of  goats,  sheep,  and  cattle 
(especially  cattle)  more  appropriate  than  agriculture.  Many  of 
the  chief  rivers  of  Europe  have  their  headwaters  in  the  Alps,  and 
they  are  capable  of  yielding  enormous  water  power,  but  only  one- 
third  of  it  is  used.  The  forested  lands  supply  firewood  and  lum- 
ber, mainly  for  local  use. 

Swiss  Industries.  — There  are,  in  addition  to  caring  for  tour- 
ists, two  dominant  industries  in  Switzerland,  (1)  the  raising  of  cat- 
tle for  dairy  products  and  (2)  manufacturing.  In  summer  the 
Swiss  herdsmen  drive  their  cows  far  up  the  mountain  sides,  where 
they  feed  upon  the  rich  grass,  and  from  their  milk  and  also  from 
the  milk  of  goats  the  famous  Swiss  cheeses  are  made.  Much  con- 
densed milk  and  milk  chocolate  are  also  made  and  exported. 

Manufacturing.  — It  would  hardly  be  expected  that  a country 
without  coal  or  iron  or  many  raw  materials  would  become  a man- 
ufacturing country,  yet  Switzerland  is  distinctly  such.  As  many 
people  are  engaged  in  manufacturing  as  in  agriculture  and  herding 
combined.  Skilled  labor  is  abundant  and  quite  cheap  ; the  Swiss 
manufacturers  specialize  in  products  of  small  bulk  and  high  value, 
notably  cotton,  silk,  and  woolen  goods,  embroideries,  expensive 
watches,  delicate  machinery,  and  scientific  instruments.  Wonder- 
ful wood  carving  is  done.  From  ten  million  to  twelve  million 
Swiss  watches  are  made  yearly. 

Transportation.  — The  position  of  the  country  between  four 
important  nations  makes  it  a crossroads  of  traffic.  The  excellent 
Swiss  railroads,  the  principal  ones  owned  by  the  government,  form 
parts  of  great  through  lines  between  the  north  of  Europe  and 
Italy,  between  Paris  and  Italy,  and  between  Paris  and  Vienna. 
Remarkably  fine  automobile  roads  traverse  the  valleys  and  zig- 


534 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


zag  up  the  slopes  and  over  the  passes.  Under  the  most  important 
passes  railway  tunnels  have  been  constructed,  the  St.  Gothard  (10 
miles  long)  and  the  Simplon  (12  miles  long)  being  the  most  famous. 
Many  special  cable  roads  and  cog  roads  have  been  built  to  enable 
tourists  to  reach  points  of  particular  scenic  beauty. 

The  People  and  Government.  — The  people  of  Switzerland, 
though  intensely  patriotic,  have  no  national  language.  The  coun- 
try is  divided  into  22  cantons ; in  15  of  these  German  is  spoken ; 
in  5 French,  and  in  2 Italian.  The  government  is  extremely 
democratic.  Education  is  general  and  nearly  all  of  the  people 
can  read  and  write  ; there  are  seven  universities,  some  of  them  of 
high  standing.  The  capital  is  Bern.  Geneva  has  been  selected 
as  the  seat  of  government  for  the  League  of  Nations. 

The  Mediterranean  Countries 

Handicaps.  — For  a long  time  the  Mediterranean  region  consti- 
tuted the  greater  part  of  the  known  world.  It  was  the  cradle  of 
European  civilization,  but  declined  in  relative  importance  as  the 
known  world  expanded  into  northern  Europe  and  across  the  Atlan- 
tic. Three  geographical  reasons  help  to  explain  this  decline  in 
contrast  with  the  rise  of  the  North  Sea  countries : 

1.  The  Climate.  — In  the  Mediterranean  lands,  which  in  sum- 
mer lie  in  the  belt  of  horse  latitudes,  the  rainfall  comes  chiefly  in 
winter ; this  is  not  favorable  for  agriculture. 

2.  The  Topography.  — The  Mediterranean  countries  are  moun- 
tainous with  a relatively  small  proportion  of  agricultural  land ; 
agriculture  is,  however,  the  principal  occupation  of  the  people. 

3.  The  Shortage  of  Minerals. — The  region  is  almost  wholly 
lacking  in  coal  (Fig.  352),  which  is  now  so  essential  to  manufactur- 
ing and  transportation  ; moreover,  the  prolonged  drought  of  sum- 
mer reduces  the  flow  of  streams  and  restricts  the  use  of  water 
power. 

Thus  are  the  people  of  these  lands  handicapped  in  three  of  the 
leading  occupations  in  which  men  engage;  namely,  agriculture, 
mining,  and  manufacturing.  Spain  is  an  exception,  so  far 
as  mining  is  concerned,  for  Spain  is  rich  in  minerals ; yet  the  key 


CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 


535 


mineral,  coal,  is  there  only  in  limited  amount.  It  is  true  that  the 
majority  of  the  people  in  these  lands  get  their  living  from  the  soil, 
but  for  most  of  them  it  is  a poor  living ; the  mountainous  land  de- 
mands a maximum  of  labor  for  a minimum  return. 

Products.  — Wheat  is  the  chief  cereal  grown  and  both  Italy  and 
Spain  devote  a large  part  of  their  agricultural  land  to  it ; yet  they 


do  not  raise  enough  for  their  people  and  must  import  it.  The  Med- 
iterranean region  is  the  region  of  the  olive  and  the  grape  (Figs. 
368,  369).  The  To  Valley  of  Italy  is  the  third  largest  producer  of 
raw  silk  in  the  world,  and  the  cork  oak  trees  of  southern  Spain 
and  Portugal  supply  most  of  the  world’s  cork,  as  Greece  supplies  a 
large  part  of  the  dried  currants.  Chestnuts  constitute  an  impor- 
tant item  of  food  in  the  mountainous  region  : e.g .,  Italy  produces 
600,000  tons  of  chestnuts  a year.  Lemons  and  oranges,  particu- 
larly in  eastern  Spain  and  in  Sicily,  are  noteworthy  crops.  It  will 
be  seen  that  the  Mediterranean  lands  are  forced  to  the  produc- 
tion of  many  specialized  crops  rather  than  the  great  staple  food- 


536 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


stuffs ; these  are  crops  demanding  hand  labor  and  cheap 
labor. 

General  Conditions.  — Northern  Italy  has  a high  development  of 
manufacturing,  and  parts  of  Spain  (especially  Barcelona)  have 


Fig.  369.  — The  chief  grape-raising  regions  of  Europe.  ( U . S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


developed  manufacturing  to  a considerable  degree,  yet  both 
are  largely  dependent  upon  imported  (and  expensive)  coal  and  im- 
ported raw  materials.  In  these  countries  wages  are  low,  the  work- 
ing people  are  poor,  sometimes  distressingly  poor,  military  service 
is  compulsory,  there  is  little  money  for  public  education,  and  emi- 
gration is  constant ; in  fact  the  money  sent  back  by  emigrants  is  an 
important  item  in  the  support  of  the  people  at  home. 

Italy  is  included  among  the  great  powers  of  Europe,  yet  Italy  is 
having,  and  must  continue  to  have,  a hard  struggle  to  meet  the 
financial  demands  arising  from  her  great  war  debt.  Her  resources 
are  small ; coal  is  almost  prohibitive  in  price  and  taxation  is  neces- 
sarily heavy.  In  recent  decades,  millions  of  Italians  have  come  to 
America  and  they  form  one  of  the  largest  elements  in  our  foreign- 
born  population. 

Spain  has  large  mineral  resources,  iron,  copper,  lead,  silver,  zinc, 
quicksilver,  and  some  coal,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  mining  is 


CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 


537 


done  by  foreign  corporations,  and  Spain  derives  only  a part  of  the 
benefits.  The  main  part  of  Spain  is  a semibarren  plateau.  Rail- 
road transportation  is  inadequate ; the  government  is  inefficient, 
and  capital  is  lacking. 


Fig.  370.  — The  Corinth  Ship  Canal  in  southern  Greece.  ( Physiography  Lab. 

Cornell  Univ.) 


Though  not  actually  a Mediterranean  country  Portugal  is  an 
integral  part  of  the  Iberian  Peninsula,  differing  comparatively 
little  from  Spain  in  its  physical  features.  The  republic  has  small 
resources  and  an  unstable  government  but  possesses  two  promis- 
ing colonies  in  Africa. 

Greece  is  a country  of  intense  national  spirit,  but  small  resources. 
The  area  was  about  equal  to  that  of  Pennsylvania,  but  it  has  been 
increased  and  new  territory  has  been  acquired  (and  some  of  it 
lost)  as  the  outcome  of  recent  wars.  The  country  is  poor ; for 
example,  the  total  yearly  revenue  of  the  government  of  Greece  is 


538 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


about  the  same  as  the  cost  of  maintaining  the  public  schools  of 
New  York  City.  The  annual  value  of  all  manufacturing  in  Greece 
and  the  total  number  of  persons  engaged  in  manufacturing  are  less 
than  those  of  the  Ford  automobile  factory  in  Detroit.  The  Greeks 
have  always  been  a seafaring  people  and  Greek  sailors  are  numer- 


Fig.  371.  — Map  of  Czechoslovakia.  ( Geographical  Review,  1919,  Amer.  Geogr.  Soc.) 

ous,  especially  on  the  Mediterranean.  Many  Greeks  have  come 
to  America  and  now  form  an  important  element  in  our  city 
population.  The  world  has  an  unusual  interest  in  Greece  because 
of  its  illustrious  past,  when  the  Greeks  were  the  most  intellectual 
and  artistic  of  all  peoples.  The  debt  of  modern  civilization  to 
ancient  Greece  is  very  great  indeed.  The  chief  exports  of  Greece 
are  tobacco  and  small  dried  grapes,  called  currants. 

The  Mediterranean  countries  have  many  famous  cities.  Lo- 
cate : Rome,  Genoa,  Naples,  Florence,  Milan,  Palermo,  Athens,  Con- 
stantinople, Saloniki,  Madrid,  Barcelona,  Lisbon,  Trieste,  Fiume. 

Southeastern  Europe 

Czechoslovakia.  — The  World  War  made  great  changes  in 
southeastern  Europe.  The  defeat  of  the  Central  Powers  brought  a 


CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 


539 


complete  break-up  of  Austria-Hungary.  The  northern  part, 
mainly  inhabited  by  Slavs,  became  the  new  republic  of  Czechoslo- 
vakia (check-o-slo-vak'ia)  with  an  area  equal  to  that  of  New  York 
State  and  a population  of  about  14,000,000.  It  lies  between  Ger- 


Fig.  372.  — All  that  is  left  of  Austria.  ( Geographical  Review,  1919,  Amer.  Geogr.  Soc.) 

many  and  German  Austria  and  is  one  of  the  important  mining 
and  manufacturing  sections  of  central  Europe.  The  people  are 
energetic  and  resourceful,  education  is  general,  railroads  are  numer- 
ous, agriculture  is  efficiently  conducted,  there  is  skilled  labor, 
capital,  and  coal  for  the  industries,  and  the  country  is  making  good 
progress  (Fig.  371). 

Austria.  — Austria  has  been  reduced  to  an  area  equal  to 
that  of  South  Carolina  (Fig.  372).  The  people  are  German  in 
language  and  sympathy,  but  were  not  allowed  by  the  peace 
treaty  to  unite  with  Germany.  The  country  has  been  in  a des- 
perate condition  following  the  war.  It  is  now  only  a fragment  of 
what  was  once  a proud  and  powerful  empire.  Of  all  the  wrecks 


540 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


resulting  from  the  World  War,  none  was  so  complete  as  that  of 
Austria,  the  nation  regarded  as  most  directly  responsible  for  pre- 
cipitating the  war.  Vienna  was  one  of  the  most  beautiful  capitals 
in  Europe,  but  the  present  Austria  cannot  maintain  a capital  of 
2,000,000  population,  and  the  great  public  buildings,  parks,  and 
boulevards  of  Vienna  cannot  be  kept  up  as  they  formerly  were. 

Hungary.  — Hungary,  the  other  member  of  the  old  Austro- 
Hungarian  monarchy,  is  a distinctively  agricultural  country,  now 
about  the  size  of  Pennsylvania ; it  was  one  of  the  leading  cereal 
producers  of  Europe.  By  the  peace  terms,  it  was  reduced  to  about 
half  its  former  size,  the  major  part  of  the  lost  territory  going  to  Ru- 
mania. Like  Austria  it  has  no  seacoast,  is  heavily  burdened  with 
war  debts,  and  has  a difficult  future.  Both  countries  have  at- 
tempted a republican  form  of  government,  but  with  uncertain 
success.  The  capital  of  Hungary,  Budapest,  was  the  leading 
flour  milling  center  of  Europe. 

Rumania.  — The  kingdom  of  Rumania  was  nearly  doubled  in 
size  by  territory  acquired  as  a result  of  the  war  ; it  is  now  nearly  as 
large  as  Italy,  and  has  a population  of  about  15,000,000  people,  the 
great  majority  of  whom  are  engaged  in  agriculture  and  stock  rais- 
ing. A major  part  of  the  country  is  composed  of  fertile  plains 
which  produce  large  quantities  of  wheat  and  other  grains  for  export. 
It  is  also  a part  of  the  south  European  corn  belt.  Bucharest,  the 
capital,  is  a modern  city.  Like  other  parts  of  southeastern  Europe, 
Rumania  does  little  manufacturing,  but  it  is  one  of  the  more  prom- 
ising countries  of  this  region. 

Jugoslavia.  — The  kingdom  of  Jugoslavia1  (yu-g5-sla/vi-a),  one  of 
the  products  of  the  World  War,  consists  of  the  former  kingdoms  of 
Serbia  and  Montenegro  and  of  certain  provinces  that  were  formerly 
held  by  Austria-Hungary.  With  the  exception  of  the  part  near  the 
Danube  it  is  a mountainous  land  whose  people  are  mainly  engaged 
in  crude  agriculture  and  stock  raising.  It  is  now  the  largest  of  the 
Balkan  countries,  has  mineral  and  forest  resources,  and  a seacoast 
on  the  Adriatic.  In  most  respects  it  is  a backward  country  need- 
ing roads,  railroads,  schools,  and  the  development  of  mining  and 
irrhe  official  name  is  the  Kingdom  of  the  Serbs,  Croats,  and  Slovenes. 


CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 


541 


manufacturing.  Its  capital,  Belgrade,  is  a city  of  about  100,000 
population. 

Bulgaria  — an  independent  nation  since  1908  — joined  Austria- 
Hungary  and  Germany  in  the  World  War,  and,  as  a result  of 
defeat,  lost  a part  of  her  territory,  though  not  a large  part ; most 
of  this  was  annexed  to  Greece.  The  country,  like  the  other  Bal- 
kan countries,  is  mountainous  in  character  and  backward  in  many 
of  the  elements  of  modern  civilization.  A minor  part  of  the  land 
is  cultivated,  very  little  mining  is  done,  and  manufacturing  and 
transportation  are  in  the  early  stages  of  development. 

The  population  is  much  mixed,  including  Turks,  Greeks,  Ru- 
manians, Slavs,  and  Germans,  in  addition  to  the  Bulgars  them- 
selves. The  total  population  is  about  5 millions.  The  agricul- 
tural land  is  held  in  small  parcels  by  the  owners,  but  most  of  the 
grazing  land  and  woodland  is  owned  by  the  communes  (communi- 
ties), and  is  used  more  or  less  in  common.  Partly  on  account  of 
their  rugged  surface,  the  Balkan  States  are  one  of  the  principal 
sheep  and  goat  raising  regions  of  Europe. 


Summary  of  Boundary  Changes  and  New  Nations 

The  chief  changes  of  boundaries  which  the  war  brought  about  are 
as  follows  : (See  Fig.  348.) 

1.  France  regained  Alsace-Lorraine  from  Germany. 

2.  Denmark  regained  from  Germany  the  northern  portion  of 
Schleswig. 

3.  Finland,  formerly  a part  of  Russia,  was  made  an  independent 
nation. 

4.  The  Polish  parts  of  Germany,  Russia,  and  Austria  were 
reunited  and  Poland  again  became  an  independent  nation. 

5.  Northern  Austria-Hungary  became  the  new  nation  of  Czecho- 
slovakia. 

6.  Italy  regained  the  province  of  Trentino  from  Austria  and  also 
gained  additional  territory  on  the  Adriatic,  including  the  port  of 
Trieste. 


542 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


7.  Rumania  gained  territory  from  Hungary  and  Russia,  nearly 
doubling  its  former  area. 

8.  The  new  state  of  the  Jugoslavs  (South  Slavs)  under  the  lead- 
ership of  Serbia,  gained  Montenegro  and  the  southern  part  of 
Austria-H  ungary . 

9.  Austria-Hungary  entirely  disappeared  as  a nation,  while 
Austria  and  Hungary  still  exist  as  small  independent  nations. 

10.  Turkey  practically  disappeared  from  Europe  and  lost  some 
of  her  Asiatic  territory.  Constantinople  was  left  under  Turkish 
rule. 

1 1.  Greece  gained  most  of  the  land  that  Turkey  lost  in  Europe 
and  a small  section  of  Bulgaria. 

12.  Former  provinces  of  Russia,  Esthonia,  the  Ukraine,  Latvia, 
and  Lithuania,  attempted  independent  existence,  but  their  status 
is  uncertain. 

13.  Two  small  states  in  the  Caucasus  region,  formerly  included 
in  Russia,  have  set  up  independent  governments. 

EXERCISE  XXIX 

1.  Why  is  Europe,  strictly  speaking,  not  a continent? 

2.  Why  has  it  so  many  peninsular  projections? 

3.  Why  does  it  naturally  divide  into  many  separate  nations? 

4.  Why  was  it  more  easily  possible  for  Russia  to  grow  large  than  for 
other  European  countries? 

5.  Why  are  the  river  mouths  of  the  British  Isles  estuaries? 

6.  Why  has  the  separation  of  the  British  Isles  from  the  continent  proved 
beneficial  to  the  former? 

7.  Why  is  France  ideally  situated  for  foreign  commerce?  Has  France 
fully  improved  her  opportunities  for  commerce? 

8.  Why,  in  your  judgment,  did  Germany  outstrip  France  commercially? 

9.  Why  is  Germany  well  situated  for  international  trade  in  Europe? 

10.  Why  is  the  climate  of  all  northwestern  Europe  unusually  mild  for  the 
latitude? 

11.  Why  has  Belgium  become  a manufacturing  nation  and  Holland  more 
largely  an  agricultural  nation? 

12.  Why  are  there  so  many  canals  and  windmills  in  Holland? 

13.  Why  is  the  Po  Valley  very  fertile?  Why  is  the  climate  of  Italy  mild? 

14.  Why  has  Italy  such  a peculiar  shape? 

15.  Why  are  so  many  Norwegians  fishermen  or  sailors? 

16.  Why  are  the  rivers  of  Norway  and  Sweden  short? 

17.  Why  is  agriculture  more  important  in  Sweden  than  in  Norway? 


CONTINENTAL  EUROPE 


543 


18.  Why  is  Italy  milder  in  climate  than  our  northern  states  in  the  same 
latitude? 

19.  Why  is  the  geographical  position  of  Belgium  regarded  as  both  advan- 
tageous and  dangerous? 

20.  Why  is  a small  part  only  of  the  iron  ore  of  Sweden  smelted  in  Sweden  ? 

EXERCISE  XXX 

1.  Give  reasons  for  the  large  foreign  trade  of  the  United  Kingdom ; France ; 
the  Netherlands. 

2.  In  what  European  countries  is  agriculture  the  principal  industry? 
Why? 

3.  Compare  and  contrast  agricultural  conditions  in  the  United  King- 
dom, France,  Belgium,  and  Denmark. 

4.  In  what  parts  of  Europe  is  wheat  a main  crop?  rye?  potatoes? 
sugar  beets?  corn?  grapes?  flax?  . olives?  Give  one  reason  in  each 
instance. 

5.  What  countries  have  coal  in  large  quantities?  What  ones  find  it 
necessary  to  import  it?  What  countries  export  it  in  considerable  quantities? 
To  how  great  a degree  do  the  native  coal  supplies  of  a country  determine  the 
extent  of  its  manufacturing?  Give  examples. 

6.  What  rivers  of  Europe  are  important  highways  of  commerce?  Locate 
them. 

7.  Account  for  the  dry  summer  climate  of  the  Mediterranean  countries. 
What  are  some  of  the  chief  effects? 

8.  Arrange  the  following  cities  in  order  of  latitude,  the  most  northerly  first : 
Berlin,  Madrid,  Petrograd,  Paris,  Rome,  London,  Constantinople,  Chicago. 

9.  Select  the  five  European  countries  which  you  consider  to  have  the 
most  advantageous  position  for  foreign  trade.  In  what  order  would  you 
rank  them  in  this  particular? 

10.  What  European  countries  would  suffer  most  if  all  trade  with  other  coun- 
tries were  cut  off  ? What  ones  would  suffer  least  ? Give  a reason  in  each  case. 

11.  What  ten  cities  would  you  name  as  important  ports  of  Europe? 
Locate  these  cities. 

12.  Most  European  countries  have  gained  a reputation  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  some  particular  article  or  articles.  Name  some  of  these  articles  in 
the  case  of  the  more  important  countries. 

13.  What  parts  of  Europe  have  an  exceptionally  dense  population?  Suggest 
the  reasons. 

14.  Contrast  Holland  and  Belgium  in  their  industrial  activities;  Norway 
and  Sweden ; France  and  Spain. 

15.  What  European  countries  would  suffer  seriously  if  they  were  quickly 
cut  off  from  all  trade  with  the  United  States?  Explain  how  and  why. 

16.  Are  we  chiefly  dependent  upon  Europe  for  markets  for  our  products 
or  for  imports  which  we  actually  need?  Explain. 

17.  What  countries  of  Europe  would  you  name  as  being  richly  endowed 
by  nature,  and  what  ones  as  being  handicapped  by  nature,  but  effectively 
developed  by  man’s  efforts  ? In  what  ones  has  man  conspicuously  failed  to 
do  his  part  ? In  what  ones  have  man  and  nature  cooperated  most  effectively  ? 


CHAPTER  XXIV 


JAPAN  AND  CHINA 

Japan 

The  Expansion  of  the  Empire.  — - Up  to  1854  the  Japanese  were 
almost  an  unknown  people.  Like  the  Chinese  they  were  suspicious 
of  foreigners  and  wished  to  keep  them  out  of  their  country.  The 
opening  of  Japan  was  mainly  due  to  the  efforts  of  the  American 
Government,  represented  by  Commodore  Perry,  who  visited  Japan 
in  1853  and  1854  with  two  warships  and  induced  the  Japanese 
Government  to  open  their  country  to  foreign  trade.  Since  1889, 
Japan  has  been  a constitutional  monarchy,  ruled  by  a parliament 
and  a Mikado  whose  ancestors  are  said  to  have  ruled  Japan  con- 
tinuously since  660  b.c. 

The  rapidity  with  which  Japan  has  gone  forward  has  had  no 
parallel  in  history,  and  to-day  the  nation  is  recognized  as  one  of  the 
world  powers.  By  defeating  China  in  1895  and  Russia  in  1905, 
Japan  became  the  dominant  power  in  the  Far  East.  In  1910 
Korea  (now  called  Chosen)  was  formally  annexed,  and  Japan’s 
influence  in  the  Chinese  province  of  Manchuria  has  become  so 
strong  that  this  province  may  eventually  be  absorbed  into  the 
Japanese  Empire  (Fig.  373).  The  navy  and  merchant  marine  of 
Japan  have  grown  very  rapidly ; Japanese  steamship  lines  are 
reaching  out  to  many  parts  of  the  commercial  world.  Her  manu- 
factures and  commerce  have  also  grown  with  remarkable  rapidity. 

Geographical  Conditions.  — The  original  empire  consisted  of 
three  large  islands  and  many  small  ones,  to  which  have  been  added 
the  dependencies  of  (1)  Chosen,  (2)  the  large  island  of  Formosa, 
taken  from  China,  (3)  the  island  of  Sakhalin,  taken  from  Russia, 
(4)  Port  Arthur  on  the  coast  of  China,  and  (5)  certain  groups  of 

544 


373 


JAPAN  AND  CHINA 


545 


islands  in  the  Pacific,  taken  from  Germany  at  the  end  of  the  World 
War  of  1914-18. 

The  main  islands  of  Japan  lie  in  the  north  temperate  zone,  partly 
in  the  belt  of  prevailing  westerlies  and  partly  in  the  region  of  the 


Fig.  374.  — Preparing  a rice  field  for  planting,  in  Japan.  ( Phila . Museums.) 

monsoon  winds.  The  climate  is  invigorating  and  the  people  are 
an  alert  and  energetic  race.  Rainfall  is  abundant ; snow  falls  on  all 
of  the  main  islands,  although  Tokio,  the  capital,  has  only  three  or 
four  snowstorms  in  an  average  winter.  xMl  of  the  islands  are 
mountainous  and  there  are  some  fifty  active  volcanoes.  In  fact, 
the  Japanese  chain  of  islands  is  essentially  a mountain  system 
which  is  still  growing.  Earthquakes  are  of  daily  occurrence  some- 
where in  the  islands.  The  short  rivers,  plunging  down  the 
mountain  valleys,  are  torrential.  The  coast  line  is  irregular  and 
good  harbors  are  fairly  numerous. 

Agriculture.  — Until  a generation  ago,  nearly  all  the  people 
of  Japan  lived  by  agriculture  supplemented  by  fishing ; and  agri- 
culture is  still  the  most  important  occupation  (Fig.  374).  The 
country  is  so  mountainous  that  only  about  15  per  cent  of  the 


546 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


land  can  be  cultivated,  but  this  is  cultivated  with  an  intensiveness 
scarcely  equaled  anywhere  else  in  the  world.  Two  or  three  crops 
a year  are  taken  from  the  same  land,  and  the  population  of  over 
60,000,000  is  fed  very  largely  from  home-grown  food,  although  only 

one-third  as  much  land  is  under  culti- 
vation as  in  Illinois.  Rice  is  the  na- 
tional food  and  about  50  per  cent  of 
the  cultivated  land  is  devoted  to  this 
crop  (Fig.  374).  Japan,  small  as  it  is, 
raises  more  rice  than  Canada  does 
wheat.  As  a rule  the  rice  fields  are 
tiny,  averaging  only  one-eighth  of  an 
acre  in  size.  A million  acres  raise 
mulberry  trees  for  feeding  silkworms. 
Tens  of  thousands  of  families  raise 
silkworms  as  a domestic  industry ; raw 
silk  is  the  largest  export  of  Japan,  and 
most  of  it  comes  to  the  United  States.1 
Farms  are  very  small,  averaging  two 
and  one-half  acres ; over  half  of  them 
are  tilled  by  their  owners.  Barley  and 
Fig.  375.  — (U.s. Dept. of  Agr.)  wheat  are,  after  rice,  the  leading  grains 

(Figs.  375,376).  Tea  is  not  particularly 
important  in  Japan.  Good  land  commands  a high  price,  because 
so  little  of  the  total  area  can  be  cultivated.  The  country  raises 
very  little  live  stock  of  any  kind,  partly  because  land  is  more 
valuable  for  the  production  of  crops. 

Minerals.  — Japan  is  fortunate  in  having  coal  enough  for  present 
needs.  The  annual  output  of  30  million  tons  is  about  one-twen- 
tieth of  that  of  the  United  States.  Her  copper  mines  supply  all 
domestic  needs  and  yield  a surplus  for  export.  The  country  pro- 
duces considerable  petroleum,  a small  amount  of  gold,  and  a larger 
amount  of  silver,  and  some  other  minerals  (Fig.  378).  The  most 
serious  shortage  is  in  iron.  Japan  aspires  to  become  a manufactur- 

1 Members  of  the  class  should  prepare  special  reports  on  the  silk  industry  and  on 
rice  cultivation. 


/ 


JAPAN  AND  CHINA 


547 


,IAPAN 

BARLEY 

ACREAGE 

REPRESEf*TS  1.000  ACRES 


ing  nation  and  will  need  more  iron  than  her  own  deposits  can  sup- 
ply. China  has  large  deposits  of  iron  ore,  and  naturally  Japan 
looks  there  for  her  needed  supplies ; this  is  one  reason  why  Japan 
would  like  to  have  as  much  influence  as  possible  in  China.  Con- 
sidering her  small  area,  Japan  may  be 
considered  as  well  supplied  with  miner- 
als excepting  iron. 

Manufactures.  — Japanese  labor  is 
relatively  cheap  and  abundant ; some 
of  the  workers  are  very  highly  skilled 
in  the  peculiar  Japanese  hand  trades. 

In  recent  years  the  Japanese  have 
been  making  remarkable  progress  in 
many  lines  of  manufacturing,  includ- 
ing shipbuilding,  silk  and  cotton  man- 
ufactures, iron  and  steel  products,  pot- 
tery, and  hundreds  of  small  articles, 
such  as  fans,  toys,  cigarettes,  matches, 
etc.  It  is  evident  that  if  Japan  is  to 
hold  a place  among  the  leading  nations 
she  must  be  a manufacturing  nation. 

So  small  is  her  food-producing  area  Fig-3 76.- (U.s.Dept.of  Agr.) 
and  so  rapid  is  her  increase  of  population,  that  Japan,  like 
England,  Belgium,  and  Switzerland,  must  to  an  ever  increasing 
extent  purchase  imported  food  and  raw  materials  and  pay  for  them 
with  manufactured  goods.  Although  a large  amount  of  machinery 
is  in  use,  handw'ork  is  still  very  important  (Fig.  379).  However, 
the  Japanese  are  quick  to  learn  new  ways,  and  factories  are 
sure  to  become  more  and  more  numerous. 

Foreign  Trade.  — The  commerce  of  Japan  has  had  a remarkable 
growth  since  1914,  increasing  about  300  per  cent  in  the  four 
years  1914—18,  but  declining  afterwards.  Much  of  this  in- 
crease, but  not  all,  was  due  to  advancing  prices  caused  by  the  war. 
The  leading  articles  exported  are  raw'  and  manufactured  silk  and 
cotton  manufactures,  both  of  which  exceed  $300,000,000  a year. 
Seventy  per  cent  of  the  raw  silk  produced  in  Japan  is  exported,  and 


548 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


seven-eighths  of  this  comes  to  the  United  States.  The  raw  cotton 
is  imported  mainly  from  the  United  States  and  British  India.  The 
cotton  goods  are  sent  chiefly  to  China,  India,  and  other  Asiatic 


Fig.  377.  ■ — The  spaces  in  the  above  diagram  show  the  proportional  areas  in  Japan 
devoted  to  various  crops  and  the  area  left  uncultivated  because  it  cannot  be 
used  for  crops. 


countries.  The  total  foreign  trade  is  beyond  2 billion  dollars 
a year,  which  is  about  that  of  Holland. 

Relations  of  Japan  and  the  United  States.  — Since  the  United 
States  acquired  the  Hawaiian  Islands  and  assumed  the  control  of 


COAL 

COPPER 

SILVER 

SULFUR 

PETROLEUM 

GOLD 

LEAD 

IRON 

ZINC 


$140,000,000 


Fig.  378.  — Average  annual  value  of  the  principal  mineral  products  of  Japan. 
Coal  has  a greater  value  than  all  of  the  other  minerals  combined. 


the  Philippines,  and  since  the  aspirations  of  Japan  to  expand  have 
become  clearly  evident,  there  have  been,  both  in  Japan  and  in  the 
United  States,  certain  people  who  have  stirred  up  suspicion  and 
distrust.  The  two  governments,  however,  have  maintained  cordial 
relations  and  the  great  majority  of  thinking  people  in  both  coun- 
tries desire  to  continue  them.  A third  of  Japan’s  foreign  trade  is 


JAPAN  AND  CHINA 


549 


with  the  United  States  and  the  cessation  of  that  trade  would  be  a 
blow  to  Japan.  Every  effort  to  preserve  friendship  should  be  made 
by  both  peoples.  If  trouble  should  arise  between  the  two  nations, 


Fig.  379.  — Reeling  silk  from  cocoons.  Silk-production  is  a leading  industry 
of  Japan,  and  Japan  is  the  foremost  producer  of  raw  silk.  ( Physiography  Lab. 
Cornell  Univ.) 


it  is  likely  to  be  over  China,  whose  people  fear  the  encroachments 
of  Japan  and  look  upon  the  United  States  as  their  friend. 


EXERCISE  XXXI 

The  Study  of  Japan:  A Geographical  Problem 

Given  : An  able,  aggressive,  ambitious  people  in  a restricted  area,  but  in- 
tent upon  holding  a place  as  a world  power. 

Problem  : What  elements  in  the  geography  of  Japan  favor  or  hinder  her 
ambitions,  and  why  is  the  United  States  concerned  about  them? 

Questions  for  Consideration  : 

1.  What  is  the  density  of  population  in  Japan?  (60,000,000  people; 
148,000  square  miles.) 


550 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


2.  Compare  this  with  the  density  in  the  United  Kingdom  (378  per  square 
mile),  Germany  (315  per  square  mile),  and  France  (192  per  square  mile). 

3.  What  proportion  of  the  area  of  Japan  can  be  devoted  to  food  produc- 
tion? 

4.  Can  so  large  a population  be  supported  on  such  a small  area?  Can 
food  production  in  the  islands  be  increased  much  further? 

5.  Consider  the  growth  of  population  in  Japan  in  recent  decades  (1890, 
40,000,000;  1900,  45,000,000;  1910,  50,000,000;  1920,  60,000,000).  Sug- 
gest ways  in  which  Japan  might  relieve  this  pressure  of  population  and  food 
shortage. 

6.  How  did  the  British  Isles  meet  a similar  problem?  Belgium? 

7.  Consider  the  territorial  expansion  of  the  British  Empire;  of  the  United 
States.  Are  Japan’s  ambitions  to  expand  justifiable? 

8.  To  what  extent  is  Japan  self-sufficient  in : (a)  coal,  ( b ) iron,  (c)  pe- 
troleum, ( d ) copper,  (e)  cotton,  (f)  other  raw  materials? 

9.  Compare  Japan  with  the  British  Isles  in  these  respects. 

10.  Could  China  supply  any  of  the  minerals  and  raw  materials  needed  by 
Japan?  Could  Manchuria? 

11.  As  a whole,  is  the  Orient  a producer  or  a buyer  of  manufactures? 

12.  What  is  the  population  of  China?  of  India?  Consider  these  coun- 
tries as  markets  for  Japan’s  manufactures. 

13.  Might  it  not  be  to  the  advantage  of  these  countries  to  sell  to  Japan 
the  needed  food,  fuel,  and  raw  materials,  and  purchase  manufactures  in  re- 
turn ? 

14.  Why  should  Japan  care  to  gain  a large  measure  of  influence  in  Chinese 
affairs?  In  Manchuria? 

15.  To  what  extent  have  other  great  nations  sought  similar  control  be- 
yond their  own  boundaries?  (Consider  England  especially.) 

16.  Why  are  the  American  people  concerned  about  Japanese  ambitions? 

The  Republic  of  China 

History.  — China  has  a history  running  bade  over  4000  years, 
and  many  of  the  laws  and  customs  still  in  use  were  established  as 
early  as  1000  B.c.  Confucius,  the  most  celebrated  scholar  and  law- 
giver of  China,  lived  about  300  b.c.  The  mariner’s  compass, 
block  printing,  and  gunpowder  were  invented  in  China  centuries 
before  they  were  known  in  Europe.  The  Great  Wall  of  North 
China,  1250  miles  long,  was  completed  2100  years  ago.  It  is  said 
that  the  Chinese  people  went  to  sleep  about  200  b.c.  and  did  not 
awaken  for  twenty  centuries. 

In  1912  the  Chinese  revolted  against  the  Manchu  rulers,  who  had 
dominated  them  for  nearly  400  years ; they  deposed  the  Emperor 
and  adopted  a republican  form  of  government.  The  effort  to 


JAPAN  AND  CHINA 


551 


maintain  a republic  has  not  been  very  successful,  and  frequent 
armed  conflicts  have  occurred  between  factions,  especially  conflicts 
between  the  North  and  the  South.  In  spite  of  its  size  and  great 
population,  China  is  still  a weak  nation  and  greatly  in  need  of 


Fig.  380.  — Density  of  population  in  Europe  and  Asia.  About  one-half  of  the 
people  of  the  world  live  in  southern  and  eastern  Asia.  ( U . S.  Dept,  of  Agr.) 


friendly  aid  from  outside  (Fig.  380).  The  United  States  has  been 
a sincere  friend  to  China  and  desires  that  the  nation  shall  be  aided 
and  protected  in  the  long,  hard  struggle  that  is  before  her. 

The  Five  Parts  of  China.  — The  Chinese  Republic  is  made  up  of 
the  eighteen  provinces  of  China  proper  and  four  outlying  de- 
pendencies, which  are  loosely  held ; these  are  Manchuria,  Mongo- 
lia, Chinese  Turkestan  (Sinkiang),  and  Tibet  (Fig.  381).  Of  the 
four,  Manchuria  is  the  most  valuable,  but  the  Japanese  are  getting 
such  a foothold  in  that  region  that  there  is  doubt  of  China’s  ability 
to  keep  it.  Mongolia  is  a desert  plateau  sparsely  occupied  by  no- 
madic tribes.  In  1922  it  was  reported  that  Mongolia  wished  to 
secede  from  China  and  join  Russia.  The  outcome  remains  to  be 
seen.  Turkestan  is  for  the  most  part  a desert.  Tibet  is  the 
most  lofty  plateau  in  the  world ; surrounded  by  mountains,  it  is 
difficult  to  enter,  and  is  but  little  known  to  outsiders.  British  in- 


552 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


fluence  spreading  northward  from  India  is  becoming  stronger 
in  Tibet  and  Chinese  influence  weaker.  Excepting  Manchuria, 
none  of  these  dependencies  is  of  much  value  to  China,  but 
they  act  as  buffers  between  China  proper  and  her  powerful 


neighbors.  More  than  90  per  cent  of  the  people  of  China 
live  in  the  eighteen  provinces  of  China  proper,  which  form  the 
southeastern  third  of  the  country.  In  the  outlying  provinces 
there  is  a sparse  population  and  no  large  cities,  but  China  itself  is 
densely  populated  and  has  many  cities,  including  Peking,  Shang- 
hai, Hankow,  and  Canton. 

The  Long  Isolation.  — China  had  almost  no  contact  with  the 
outside  world  until  the  nineteenth  century.  Between  China  and  the 
more  enlightened  people  of  Asia  Minor  and  Europe  there  was  practi- 
cally no  exchange  of  ideas.  Long  ago  China  pushed  her  bounda- 
ries outward  until  they  reached  the  great  barriers  of  the  desert  on 
the  north  and  west,  the  almost  impassable  mountains  on  the  south. 


JAPAN  AND  CHINA 


553 


and  the  sea  on  the  east ; but  nowhere  did  she  come  into  contact 
with  peoples  from  whom  she  could  learn  very  much,  and  gradually 
the  Chinese  became  self-satisfied ; they  concluded  that  they  were 
the  most  enlightened  people  of  the  earth,  fell  into  the  practice  of 
worshiping  their  ancestors,  and  adopted  the  idea  that  these  ances- 
tors were  wiser  than  their  descendants,  and  that  the  very  best  they 
themselves  could  do  was  to  imitate  them.  Because  the  country  was 
completely  isolated  from  western  nations  where  civilization  was 
going  forward,  China  did  not  know  of  her  backwardness  until  she 
was  aroused  by  the  coming  of  Europeans  in  the  nineteenth  century. 

The  one  most  significant  fact  in  the  geography  of  China  is  this 
geographical  separateness  in  which  she  lived,  a separateness  which 
grew  out  of  her  remote  location  and  the  almost  impassable  barriers 
that  separated  her  from  western  nations.  Only  with  the  develop- 
ment of  modern  means  of  navigation  was  this  isolation  broken 
down ; and  in  the  interior  of  China  it  is  still  very  little  changed, 
where  changed  at  all. 

Other  Geographical  Conditions.  — Besides  the  geographical  bar- 
riers that  shut  China  off  from  the  rest  of  the  world,  several  other 
features  of  her  geography  should  be  noted. 

1.  The  country  is  very  large,  a third  larger  than  the  United 
States ; it  has  a great  diversity  of  surface,  including  vast,  fertile 
plains ; range  on  range  of  mountains ; far-reaching  deserts ; 
and  a wide  diversity  of  climate  from  cold  temperate  to  tropical. 

2.  The  two  main  rivers,  the  Hwang  and  Yangtze,  have  built 
up  flood  plains  of  great  extent  and  great  fertility  which  are 
now  very  densely  populated  (Fig.  380). 

3.  The  principal  part  of  China  is  in  the  belt  of  monsoon  winds 
which  bring  heavy  summer  rainfall  and  aid  in  making  China  one  of 
the  most  productive  parts  of  the  world. 

Because  both  soil  and  rainfall  are  ideally  suited  to  agriculture 
the  Chinese  became  a nation  of  farmers,  and  because  of  the  great 
population  the  farms  necessarily  are  small.  So  industrious  are  the 
people  and  so  intensively  do  they  cultivate  and  fertilize  their  land 
that  it  produces  a prodigious  amount  of  food,  practically  enough 
for  their  population  of  400,000,000,  or  nearly  a quarter  of  the  people 


554 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


of  the  earth.  One  serious  drawback  to  life  on  the  flood  plains  is  the 
occurrence  of  disastrous  floods  which  sometimes  cause  the  death 
of  as  many  as  a million  people  by  drowning  and  by  famine.  The 
Yangtze  River,  described  in  Chapter  IX,  is  the  great  interior 

waterway  of  China.  The 
Hwang  has  so  many  rapids 
and  is  so  turbulent  that  it  can- 
not be  used  for  navigation,  but 
it  brings  down  and  spreads 
over  its  flood  plain  a great 
amount  of  fertile,  yellow  loess, 
which  constantly  restores  the 
fertility  of  the  soil.  (See  page 
66.) 

The  Lack  of  Modern  Means 
of  Transportation.  — - The 

Chinese  have  built  practically 
no  good  roads  anywhere  in 
China.  In  few  sections  can 
any  wheeled  vehicle  except  a 
wheelbarrow  be  used,  but  there 
are  several  thousand  miles  of 
canals  and  navigable  rivers 
upon  which  an  enormous  traffic 
is  carried  (Fig.  382).  A large 
part  of  the  overland  trans- 
portation is  done  by  pack 
animals  or  by  porters  who 
carry  goods  on  their  backs 
or  on  wheelbarrows.  Though 
labor  is  cheap,  transportation 
by  these  methods  is  slow 
and  expensive  if  the  distance  is  considerable.  This  is  another 
cause  for  the  backwardness  of  China,  for  no  nation  can  make  much 
progress  unless  it  has  good  means  of  transport. 

The  Great  Resources  of  China.  — The  mineral  wealth  of  China 


Fig.  382.  ■ — Map  showing  about  one-third 
of  the  canals  in  718  square  miles  of  east- 
ern China.  ( F . H.  King.) 


JAPAN  AND  CHINA 


555 


is  very  great ; coal  occurs  in  nearly  every  province.  Next  to  the 
United  States,  China  has  the  greatest  coal  resources  of  any  coun- 
try, yet  only  a small  amount  is  mined.  These  coal  deposits,  how- 
ever, will  be  developed  and  with  the  almost  unlimited  supply  of  labor 
which  China  has  she  ought  some  time  to  become  a great  manu- 
facturing nation.  Iron  also  exists  in  large  but  undetermined  quan- 
tities, and  tin  is  exported  to  the  value  of  $5, 000, 000  a year. 
Geological  explorations  in  China,  though  very  incomplete,  war- 
rant the  belief  that  in  mineral  wealth  the  country  is  one  of  the  rich- 
est in  the  world. 

Forests.  — Nearly  all  the  forests  except  those  in  the  most 
inaccessible  mountains  have  been  cut  away,  resulting  in  serious 
erosion  of  the  soil  and  in  a present  shortage  of  timber. 

Labor.  — One  of  China’s  greatest  resources  is  her  millions  of 
industrious  workers.  As  yet  much  of  their  labor  is  ineffectually 
employed  because  of  antiquated  methods,  but  it  seems  sure  that 
this  abundant  labor  will  lead  to  the  upbuilding  of  the  nation’s 
industries,  and  that  some  day  China  will  produce  not  only  her  own 
manufactured  goods  but  also  a surplus  for  export. 

Agriculture.  — Agriculture  is  the  one  great  industry  of  China, 
but  the  soil  can  do  little  more  than  feed  the  enormous  population. 
Above  all  rice  is  the  important  crop ; the  production  exceeds  50 
billion  pounds  a year.  Nearly  all  the  grains  and  great  quanti- 
ties of  vegetables  are  raised.  There  is  practically  no  animal 
industry  except  the  raising  of  pigs  and  poultry.  The  production  of 
the  mulberry  and  the  care  of  silkworms  is  widespread  and  impor- 
tant, as  raw  silk  constitutes  the  largest  export  from  China.  Tea  is 
declining  as  an  export,  due  in  part  to  the  better  methods  of  produc- 
tion employed  in  India  and  Ceylon.  Cotton  is  widely  grown  and 
is  used  mainly  within  the  country,  although  some  is  exported ; 
China  ranks  fourth  in  the  production  of  this  staple  (U.  S.,  India, 
Egypt,  China).  Most  of  the  land  is  owned  by  the  farmers  them- 
selves ; it  is  worked  by  hand,  and  by  an  infinite  amount  of  labor  it 
is  forced  to  produce  a surprising  amount. 

Commerce. — Although  the  foreign  trade  is  over  a billion  dollars 
a year,  it  is  still  small  in  proportion  to  the  population.  The  people 


556 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


are  too  poor  to  buy  very  many  imported  goods,  and  what  they 
produce  is  mostly  needed  at  home.  China  has  a per  capita  trade 
of  less  than  $3  a year,  while  that  of  Australia,  New  Zealand,  and 
Argentina  is  more  than  $100  per  capita.  The  trade  is  most 


Fig.  383.  — One  method  of  sawing  lumber  in  Manchuria.  (©  ^eVstone  View  Co.) 

largely  with  Japan,  the  United  States,  and  the  British  Empire. 
The  trade  of  China  will  become  very  large  in  time,  and  all  the 
commercial  nations  are  seeking  to  gain  trade  advantages  there. 


JAPAN  AND  CHINA 


557 


The  Present  Republic.  — In  1912  China  became  a republic,  but 
great  difficulties  confront  the  nation  ; the  people  of  the  North  and 
South  are  more  or  less  hostile  to  each  other  and  civil  strife  breaks 
out  frequently.  Money  for  developing  mines,  improving  trans- 
portation, and  building  up  industries  is  needed  in  great  amounts. 
Modern  education,  a get-together  spirit,  honest  government,  and 
friendly  aid  from  outside  are  essential.  In  the  interior  foreigners 
are  still  regarded  with  suspicion.  The  most  serious  difficulty  is  the 
lack  of  unity  among  the  various  parts  of  the  country,  and  the 
impossibility  of  getting  honest  public  officials  who  can  command 
the  confidence  and  support  of  the  country  as  a whole. 

Summary 

China  has  the  largest  population  of  any  country  in  the  world 
(400,000,000) ; it  is  also  one  of  the  oldest  countries  in  the  world. 
Surrounded  by  vast  deserts,  lofty  mountain  ranges,  and  the  sea, 
China  remained  for  thousands  of  years  cut  off  from  contact  with 
western  nations.  In  1912  the  country  became  a republic  in  name, 
but  the  new  government  has  had  a troublous  course  and  its  success 
is  still  uncertain.  The  vast  majority  of  the  people  live  on  little 
pieces  of  land  which  they  till  with  infinite  care  and  labor,  producing 
a great  amount  of  food.  The  Chinese  are  a remarkably  industrious 
people,  but  they  are  wedded  to  their  ancient  ways  and  do  not 
readily  change  them.  In  the  production  of  rice,  silk,  and  tea, 
China  takes  a high  but  not  a leading  place.  The  country  is  very 
rich  in  coal,  iron,  and  most  other  minerals,  but  only  a small  amount 
of  mining  is  done.  Labor  is  cheap  and  abundant ; roads  are  few 
and  poor.  There  are  less  than  7000  miles  of  railroad  in  the  whole 
country.  The  foreign  trade  is  only  S3  per  capita.  China,  though 
large  and  populous,  is  a weak  nation  and  will  require  the  friend- 
ship of  stronger  powers  if  it  is  to  hold  together. 

EXERCISE  XXXII 

The  Study  of  China : A Geographical  Problem 

Given  : A nation  with  a large  area,  favorable  climate,  rich,  undevel- 
oped mineral  resources,  and  an  enormous  population  of  able  people,  but  as 
yet  not  competent  to  protect  itself  or  achieve  its  own  internal  development. 


558 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Problem  : What  elements  in  the  history  and  geography  of  China  have 
brought  about  this  helplessness  and  what  is  essential  to  the  preservation  and 
upbuilding  of  the  nation? 

Questions  for  Consideration  : 

1.  Area?  population?  density  of  population? 

2.  Of  what  parts  is  the  Chinese  Republic  made  up?  Which  ones  of 
these  are  dependencies  (Fig.  381)? 

3.  Only  one  of  these  dependencies  is  very  valuable  in  itself.  Which  one  ? 

4.  Why  are  the  other  three  of  small  value  in  themselves? 

5.  In  what  ways  are  they  of  value  to  China?  In  what  ways  would  the 
loss  of  these  dependencies  affect  China? 

6.  What  country  has  been  gaining  an  increasing  degree  of  control  in 
Tibet?  in  Mongolia?  in  Manchuria? 

7.  Which  of  these  encroachments  is  most  dangerous  to  China?  Why? 

8.  Show  how  China’s  geographical  position  and  surroundings  favored 
her  long  isolation  ? When  was  this  isolation  broken  ? 

9.  When  and  how  did  China  become  a republic  ? 

10.  Comment  on  the  success  of  the  Chinese  Republic.  What  conditions 
in  China  seriously  handicap  the  present  republic? 

11.  To  what  extent  is  China  supplied  with  (a)  coal,  ( b ) iron,  (c)  petroleum, 
(d)  other  minerals?  Is  the  country  self-sufficient  in  food? 

12.  To  what  extent  is  the  country  retarded  by  lack  of  transportation  fa- 
cilities? lack  of  education?  lack  of  capital?  lack  of  national  spirit? 

13.  Discuss  the  importance  of  agriculture  in  China. 

14.  Consider  China  as  a future  manufacturing  nation.  In  what  particu- 
lars is  it  (a)  strong  and  ( b ) weak? 

15.  In  what  important  ways  is  China’s  future  connected  with  Japan’s 
attitude  ? 

16.  To  what  extent  is  the  United  States  justified  in  interesting  itself  in 
Far  Eastern  affairs? 

17.  Why  is  the  future  of  China  endangered? 

18.  What  does  China  most  need  in  order  to  work  out  its  future  as  an 
independent,  modernized  nation? 


REFERENCE  BOOKS  FOR  THE  SCHOOL  LIBRARY 


Agriculture  and  Soils 

Finch,  V.  C.,  and  Baker,  O.  E.  Geography  of  the  World’s  Agriculture. 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  Washington,  1917. 

Hopkins,  C.  G.  Soil  Fertility  and  Permanent  Agriculture.  Ginn  and  Co., 
"Boston,  1910,  653  pp. 

Lyon,  T.  L.,  and  Fippin,  E.  O.  The  Principles  of  Soil  Management.  The 
’'Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1909,  531  pp. 

United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Year  Book  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  (Annual).  Washington,  D.  C. 

Asia 

Huntington,  Ellsworth.  Asia,  a geographical  reader.  Rand,  McNally 
and  Co.,  Chicago,  1912,  344  pp. 

Astronomy 

Moulton,  F.  R.  Introduction  to  Astronomy.  The  Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y., 
1906,  557  pp. 

Atlases 

Bartholomew,  J.  G.  An  Atlas  of  Economic  Geography.  The  Oxford  Uni- 
versity Press,  London  and  New  York,  1914,  64  pp.  of  text  and  64  pp.  of 
maps. 

Bartholomew,  J.  G.  The  Comparative  Atlas  of  Physical  and  Political  Geog- 
raphy. Meiklejohn  and  Holden,  London,  64  pp.  of  maps  with  detailed 
index. 

Bartholomew,  J.  G.  The  Advanced  Atlas  of  Physical  and  Political  Geog- 
raphy. Oxford  University  Press,  London  and  New  York,  1917,  96  pp.  of 
maps. 

The  British  Empire 

Herbertson,  A.  J.,  and  Howarth,  O.  J.  R.,  editors.  Oxford  Survey  of  the 
British  Empire. 

Vol.  1,  British  Isles  Vol.  4,  America 

Vol.  2,  Asia  Vol.  5,  Australasia 

Vol.  3,  Africa  Vol.  6,  General  Survey 

Oxford  University  Press,  London  and  New  York,  1914. 

The  Britishlsles 

Mackinder,  H.  J.  Britain  and  the  British  Seas.  D.  Appleton  and  Co., 
N.  Y.,  1902,  377  pp. 


559 


560 


HIGH  SCHOOL  GEOGRAPHY 


Canada 

Ami,  Henry  M.,  editor.  North  America.  Stanford’s  Compendium  of 
'Geography  and  Travel,  Vol.  1.  Edward  Stanford,  London,  1915,  1068  pp. 

Commercial  and  Industrial  Geography 

Chisholm,  George  G.  Handbook  of  Commercial  Geography . Longmans, 
Green  and  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1908,  660  pp.  (New  Edition,  1921.) 

McFarlane,  John.  Economic  Geography.  The  Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y.,  no 
date,  560  pp. 

Smith,  J.  Russell.  Commercial  and  Industrial  Geography.  Henry  Holt 
and  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1913,  914  pp. 

Europe 

Lyde,  Lionel  W.  The  Continent  of  Europe.  The  Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y., 
1913,  446  pp. 

Food  Resources 

Smith,  J.  Russell.  The  World’s  Food  Resources.  Henry  Holt  and  Co., 
N.  Y.,  1919,  634  pp. 

France 

Blanchard,  R.,  and  Todd,  M.  Geography  of  France.  Rand,  McNally  and 
Co.,  Chicago,  1919,  238  pp. 

Geography  of  the  W orld 

Mill,  H.  R.  International  Geography.  D.  Appleton  and  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1899, 

1088  pp. 

Geographical  Environment  and  Its  Influence 

Semple,  Ellen  C.  The  Influences  of  Geographic  Environment.  Henry 
Holt  and  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1911,  683  pp. 

Geology  and  Mineral  Resources 

Cleiand,  Herdman  F.  Geology,  Physical  and  Historical.  American  Book 
Co.,  N.  Y.,  1916,  718  pp. 

Ries,  Heinrich.  Economic  Geology.  John  Wiley  and  Sons,  N.  Y.,  1916, 
856  pp. 

Chamberlin,  T.  C.,  and  Salisbury,  R.  D.  Introductory  Geology.  Henry 
Holt  and  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1914,  708  pp. 

United  States  Geological  Survey,  Washington,  D.C.  Annual  volumes 
on  Mineral  Resources  of  the  United  States ; also  World  Atlas  of  Commercial 
Geology,  Part  1,  1921. 

Human  Geography 

Brunhes,  Jean,  translated  by  Le  Compte  ; edited  by  Bowman  and  Dodge. 
Rand,  McNally  and  Co.,  Chicago,  1920,  648  pp. 

Huntington,  E.,  and  Cushing,  S.  Principles  of  Human  Geography.  John 
Wiley  and  Sons,  N.  Y.,  1920,  430  pp. 

Latin  America 

Halsey,  F.  M.,  Investments  in  Latin  America.  Special  Agents  Series,  No. 

169.  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Commerce,  Washington,  D.  C.  (50;i).  1918,  544  pp. 


REFERENCE  BOOKS  FOR  THE  SCHOOL  LIBRARY  561 


Mathematical  Geography 

Johnson,  Willis  E.  Mathematical  Geography.  American  Book  Co., 
N.  Y.,  1907,  336  pp. 

Meteorology  and  Climatology 

Davis,  Wm.  M.  Elementary  Meteorology.  Ginn  and  Co.,  Boston,  1894, 
355  pp. 

Milham,  W.  I.  Meteorology.  The  Macmillan  Co.,  N.  Y.,  1912,  541  pp. 
Ward,  R.  De  C.  Climate.  G.  P.  Putnams  Sons,  N.  Y.,  1908,  372  pp. 
North  America 

Colby,  Chas.  C.  Source  Book  for  the  Economic  Geography  of  North  America. 
University  of  Chicago  Press,  1921,  418  pp. 

Ocean 

Murry,  Sir  John.  The  Ocean.  Henry  Holt  and  Co.,  1912,  256  pp. 
Physical  and  Commercial  Geography 

Gregory,  H.  E.,  Keller,  A.  G.,  and  Bishop,  A.  L.  Physical  and  Commer- 
cial Geography.  Ginn  and  Co.,  Boston,  1910,  469  pp. 

Physiography 

Tarr,  R.  S.,  and  Martin,  Lawrence.  College  Physiography.  The  Mac- 
millan Co.,  N.  Y.,  1914,  837  pp. 

Salisbury,  Rollin  D.  Physioqraphy,  Advanced  Course.  Henry  Holt  and 
Co.,  N.  Y.,  1907,  770  pp. 

Physiography  of  the  United  States 

Bowman,  Isaiah.  Forest  Physiography.  John  Wiley  and.  Sons,  N.  Y., 
1911,  759  pp. 

Political  Geography 

Bowman,  Isaiah.  The  New  World;  Problems  in  Political  Geography. 

World  Book  Co.,  Yonkers,  N.  Y.,  1921,  632  pp. 

The  Statesman’s  Year  Book,  published  annually  by  The  Macmillan  Co., 
N.  Y. 

The  World  Almanac,  published  annually  by  The  World,  N.  Y.  City. 
Geographical  Magazines 

The  Geographical  Review.  Published  by  the  American  Geographical  Society, 
New  York,  quarterly;  $5.00  a year. 

The  National  Geographic  Magazine.  Published  by  the  National  Geographic 
Society,  Washington,  D.C.,  monthly,  beautifully  illustrated,  $3.50  a year. 
The  Bulletin  of  the  Philadelphia  Geographical  Society.  Published  by  the 
Society,  Philadelphia,  quarterly,  $2.00  a year. 

The  Journal  of  Geography.  Published  by  A.  J.  Nystrom  & Co.,  2249  Calumet 
Ave.,  Chicago,  111.  A geography  teachers’  magazine ; organ  of  the  National 
Council  of  Geography  Teachers;  monthly  except  June,  July,  and  August; 
$2.00  a year;  $1.50  a year  to  members,  including  membership  in  the  Na- 
tional Council. 


INDEX 


Numbers  refer  to  pages 


Absolute  humidity,  259 
Africa,  British  possessions,  495 
Agassiz,  Lake,  map , 207,  246 
Agassiz,  Louis,  197 

Agricultural  provinces  of  the  United 
States,  map,  72 
Agriculture,  importance  of,  63 
and  rainfall,  235 
and  weather,  70 
in  the  United  States,  70—90 
( For  special  countries,  see  under  those 
countries ) 

Air  drainage,  269 
Akron,  414 

Alabama,  38,  41,  150,  353,  420 
Alaska,  192,  305,  422 
glaciers,  191 
gold  in,  44 
salmon  fisheries,  358 
seal  fisheries,  358 
Alfalfa,  76 

Allegheny  Plateau,  242,  243 
Alluvial  fans,  125 
Alluvium,  66 
Alps,  glaciers  of,  196 
scenery  of,  532 
railroads  and  tunnels,  533 
Altitude  and  temperature,  233 
Amazon  River,  159-162 
forests,  458 
Amsterdam,  528 
Andes  Mountains,  239,  439 
grazing,  449 
transportation,  450 
Animal  life  and  soil,  64 
Antarctica,  298 

Anthracite  coal  fields  of  Pennsylvania, 
map,  34 

Anticyclones,  278 
Antitrade  winds,  274 
Antofagasta,  452 
Antwerp,  527 
Appalachian  coal  field,  36 
Appalachian  highland,  227,  230,  233, 
236,  240,  244,  386 


valley,  soil,  66 

Apples,  United  States,  82-83 
Arabs,  302 
Arctic,  life  in,  296 
Argentina,  452-456 

agriculture  and  stock  raising,  453 
cattle,  map,  456 
cities,  454 

climatic  conditions,  454 
flax  production,  map,  454 
foreign  trade,  455 
fruit,  454 
future  of,  455 
locusts,  454 
sugar,  454 

Arizona,  84,  101,  102,  422 
copper  production,  42,  43 
cotton,  77 
Arkansas,  81,  97 
Arkansas  river,  140 
Artesian  wells,  94,  95 
Asia,  British  possessions  in,  483- 
489 

Asia,  southwestern,'  489 
Asteroids,  14,  17 
Atlantic  City,  346 
Atlantic  coast  of  United  States,  338 
Atmosphere,  3,  253-267 
as  a blanket,  257 
chemical  work,  59 
circulation,  map,  271 
composition,  53,  253 
density,  4 
depth,  4,  254 
essential  to  life,  4 
heat  in,  257 
pressure,  254,  269 
summary,  265 
water  in,  258 
Australia,  490-495 
climate,  490 
exports,  494 
general  description,  490 
gold,  44 

lead  and  zinc,  50 


563 


564 


INDEX 


map,  490 

mineral  wealth,  491,  493 
rainfall,  map,  491 
sheep  and  wool,  491,  493 
Austria,  539 

Austria-Hungary,  map,  539 
Automobile  manufacturing  in  central 
states,  414 
Axis  of  earth,  13 
Azerbaijan,  531 

Bacteria  in  soil,  65 
Bahama  Islands,  439 
Baku  oil  field,  508 
Baltimore,  349,  410,  413 
fishing  fleet,  348 

Baltimore-Philadelphia  manufacturing 
district,  410 

Bananas,  Caribbean  region,  433,  map, 
435 

Barley,  82 
Barometer,  255,  256 
Barriers,  mountain,  238 
Basques,  241 
Bath,  340 
Bed  rock,  6 

Beet  sugar,  Belgium,  527 
Europe,  map,  512 
France,  518 
Germany,  523 
United  States,  82,  423 
Belgium,  526-527 
Belgrade,  541 
Berkshire  Hills,  227 
Berlin,  524 

Big  trees,  California,  364,  365 
Birmingham,  353,  420 
Black  Hills,  227 
Blue  grass  region,  66 
Bolivia,  450 

Books  for  school  library,  list  of,  559 
Boston  Harbor,  map,  339,  340 
Brazil,  the  Amazon,  159,  458-463 
coffee,  458-460 
forests,  458 
minerals,  460 
rubber,  458,  462 
transportation  in,  460 
Bridgeport,  343 

British  Columbia,  minerals,  480 
salmon  fisheries,  479 
British  Empire,  466-500 
British  Guiana,  446 
British  India,  483-489 


British  possessions  in  Africa,  495-496 
in  Asia,  483-489 
in  Australia,  490-495 
in  North  America,  433,  438,  476-483 
Brooklyn,  342,  345 
Brussels,  527 
Bucharest,  540 

Buckwheat  in  United  States,  map , 81 
Budapest,  540 
Buenos  Aires,  463 
Bulgaria,  541 

Butter  and  cheese  in  United  States,  87 

Cacao,  449,  460 
Cairo,  111.,  146 

California,  77,  81,  82,  84,  96,  155,  304, 
305,  306,  355,  364,  422,  423 
fruit,  83,  85 
gold,  44 
oil,  46 

relief  map,  125 
salt,  49 
valley,  125 

water  powers,  map,  152 
Calms,  273 
Camden,  347 
Canada,  476-483 
agriculture,  481 
cattle  raising,  482 
coal,  480 
fisheries,  479 
foreign  commerce,  482 
forest  wealth  and  industries,  479 
government  and  people,  476 
iron,  480 
land  area,  477 
manufacturing,  482 
mineral  resources,  479-480 
nickel,  480 
water  power,  481 
wheat  production,  map,  481 
wood  pulp,  479 
Canals  of  China,  554 

of  United  States,  380,  map,  381 
Canton,  552 
Cape  Cod  Canal,  343 
Cape  to  Cairo  railroad,  495 
Cape  Town,  498 

Caribbean  countries  of  South  America, 
444-446 

Caribbean  region,  banana  production, 
435 

Catskill  Mountains,  243 
Cattle  in  United  States,  84 


INDEX 


565 


Caucasus  Mountains,  people,  242 
Caves  and  caverns,  101,  102 
Centigrade  thermometer,  6 
Central  America,  433-436 
Central  American  Confederation,  434 
Change  of  seasons,  12 
Charleston,  349 
Chautauqua  grape  belt,  290 
Cheese  and  butter  production  of  United 
States,  87 

Chemical  weathering,  59 
Chesapeake  Bay,  349 
Chicago,  414-415 

stock  yards,  view,  418 
Chief  cities  of  British  Isles,  map,  470 
Chile,  446-452 
nitrate,  447 
China,  550-557 
agriculture,  555 
area,  552 
canals,  554 
commerce,  555 
famines,  554 
flood  plains,  553 
floods,  554 
forests,  555 

geographical  conditions,  553 
history,  550 
labor  supply,  555 
loess,  66 

long  isolation,  552 
monsoons,  553 
parts  of,  551 
population,  553 
present  republic,  557 
resources,  554 
rivers,  553 
silk,  555 
soil,  erosion,  67 
summary,  557 
tea,  555 
Cincinnati,  416 
Cirrus  clouds,  259,  260 
Cities  of  United  States,  map,  404 
Clay,  64 
Cleveland,  415 

Climate,  and  its  influence,  286-313 
and  agriculture,  70 
and  altitude,  233 
and  man,  296,  310 
and  mountain  barriers,  292 
and  ocean  currents,  292 
and  water  bodies,  290 
and  weather,  286 


and  winds,  292 

of  east  coast  of  United  States,  309 
of  interior  of  United  States,  308 
of  Mississippi  Valley,  308 
of  North  temperate  zone,  303 
of  Pacific  coast  of  United  States,  304 
of  western  Europe,  306 
of  west  facing  coast,  303 
oceanic,  290 

relation  to  manufacturing,  404 
summary,  295 
Clouds,  260 
colors  of,  261 
Coal,  anthracite,  34 

areas  of  United  States,  map,  33 

bituminous,  34 

distribution  of,  32 

energy  in,  34 

Europe,  506 

Great  Britain,  471 

importance  to  manufacturing,  400 

mining  of,  31,  32,  35,  36 

origin  of,  31 

resources  of  United  States,  35,  36 
resources  of  world,  37 
{See  also  under  various  countries) 
Coast  line,  325,  327,  361,  469 
Coastal  plains,  245 
Coast  of  United  States,  337-361 
Coasts,  horded,  326 
rising,  327 
sinking,  325 
Coffee,  445,  446 
in  Brazil,  458,  460 
in  Central  America,  433 
Coffee  of  South  America,  map,  461 
Colombia,  444 

Colombia  Plateau,  map,  222,  242 
Colorado,  44,  50,  82,  423 
Columbia  River,  354,  356 
Columnar  structure,  26 
Comets,  14,  17 
Compass,  10 
Condensation,  258 
Connecticut,  409 
Continental  Europe,  501-543 
Continental  glaciers,  past,  196 
Continents  and  ocean  basins,  213 
Convection  in  the  atmosphere,  257 
Copper  in  United  States,  42 
Coral  growth,  316 
Cork,  in  Spain,  535 
Corn  in  United  States,  74,  map,  75 
Costa  Rica,  433 


566 


INDEX 


Cost  of  transportation  by  different 
methods,  396 
Cotton,  in  China,  555 
in  Egypt,  495 
in  India,  486 
in  Peru,  449 
in  United  States,  74,  76 
Cotton  consumption  by  states,  map,  411 
Cotton  crop,  importance  of,  63 
Cotton  manufacturing,  by  states,  map, 
411 

in  New  England,  408 
Cotton  mills  in  United  States,  map,  419 
Cotton  regions  of  United  States,  map,  76 
Cotton,  sea  island,  77,  350 
Cotton,  soils,  68 
Creep  of  soil,  67 
Crevasses,  188 
Crops  and  prosperity,  70 
and  soil,  67 
of  United  States,  75 
Cuba,  436,  437 

sugar  mills,  map,  437 
tobacco,  437,  map,  438 
Cumulus  clouds,  260,  262 
Currents  of  ocean,  319 
Cyclones,  278 
Czechoslovakia,  538 

Dairying,  United  States,  87,  88 
Day  and  night,  cause  of,  13 
temperatures,  258 
Dayton,  flood,  122 
Dead  Sea,  48 
Decay  of  rocks,  59 
Deforestation  and  soil  erosion,  374 
Delaware,  94,  309,  348 
Bay,  347 
River,  347 
Deltas,  124 

Delta  of  the  Mississippi,  353 
Denmark,  530 
Denudation,  114 
Deposits,  on  ocean  bottom,  315 
by  rivers,  123 
Deserts,  life  in,  302 
Detroit,  414,  415 
River,  147 

Detroit  River,  traffic  through,  39 

Dew  and  frost,  263 

Dew  point,  260 

Diamonds,  South  Africa,  497 

Doldrums,  273 

Dominican  Republic,  437 


Drift,  glacial,  202 
Driftless  area  of  Wisconsin,  199 
Drowned  river  mouths,  126 
Dust  in  atmosphere,  254 
Dutch  Guiana,  446 

Earth,  interior  temperatures  of,  7 
its  interior,  6 
its  motion,  13 
its  neighbors,  2,  21 
movements  of  its  crust,  213 
Earthquakes,  214 
causes,  216 
examples,  215 
summary,  219 
waves,  217 
zones,  217 
Ecuador,  449 
Egypt,  495 

agriculture,  496 
cotton,  495 
irrigation,  496 
man  and  nature  in,  178 
Egypt  and  the  Nile,  174-178 
Elements  and  compounds,  24 
Elements,  rock  forming,  25 
Emeralds,  445 
England,  466-476 
Equatorial  calms,  273 
Equatorial  currents,  319 
Equatorial  lowlands,  298 
Erie  Canal,  132,  147,  381 
Erosion,  by  glaciers,  188,  202 
and  natural  scenery,  121 
and  overloading  of  streams,  235 
by  rivers,  108-121 
of  soil,  67 

Erratics,  glacial,  197 
Eskimos,  life  of,  297 
Esthonia,  531 
Estuaries,  126 
Etna,  volcano,  220 
Europe,  501-543 

boundary  changes,  summary,  541 
cereals,  509 

climate,  influence  of,  502 
coal  and  iron,  506,  map,  507 
coast  line,  influence  of*  503 
commerce,  513 
continental,  501-543 
domination  of  world,  501 
food  production,  509 
forests,  510 

glaciers,  199,  202,  map,  529 


INDEX 


567 


grape  growing,  map,  536 
leadership,  501 
manufacturing,  513 
mineral  resources  506-509 
new  nations,  summary,  541 
olive  growing,  map,  535 
petroleum,  508 
ports,  514 
potatoes,  map,  523 
races,  506 
railways,  512 
rivers,  505 
rye,  map,  511 
sheep,  map,  473 
sugar  beets,  509,  map,  512 
surface  features,  influence  of,  504 
western,  climate  of,  306 
wheat,  map,  510 
Evaporation,  258 
Exfoliation,  58 

Fahrenheit  thermometer,  6 
Falls  and  rapids,  115 
Fall  River,  342 
Fans,  alluvial,  125 
Far  Eastern  Republic,  531 
Farm  machinery,  use  of,  73 
Farming  methods  in  United  States,  73 
Farming  regions  of  United  States,  74 
Filled  valleys,  125 
Finland.  531 
Fiorded  coasts,  326 
Fisheries,  318 
of  Alaska,  358 
of  New  England,  343 
of  Pacific  coast,  357 
of  the  ocean,  343 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  472 
of  the  United  States,  340,  343,  349, 
350,  357,  358 
Fissure  eruptions,  220 
Flax  in  Argentina,  map,  454 
Flax  in  United  States,  map,  81 
Floods,  122 
Flood  plains,  123 

Florida,  77,  84,  229,  350,  351,  352-,  420 
Florida  East  Coast  Railway,  352 
Florida  keys,  350 
map,  352 

Flour-milling,  Minneapolis,  417 
Forest,  fires,  375,  376 
industries,  366 
of  United  States,  map,  363 
products  of  Europe,  510—512 


trees,  habits,  362 
Forest  and  soils,  68 
Forests  of  United  States,  central,  365 
northern,  365 
Pacific  slope,  366 
Rocky  Mountains,  366 
southern,  365 

of  South  America,  map,  441 
of  the  United  States,  362-377 
Fox  River  Valley,  Wisconsin,  371 
France,  5 14-520 
agriculture,  516 
cities,  520 
climate,  516 
coal  deposits,  map,  515 
colonies,  520 

favorable  geography,  515 
foreign  trade,  518 
geographical  position,  516 
grape  growing,  map,  517 
manufactures,  518 
minerals,  516 
rank  among  nations,  514 
rivers,  505 
summary,  520 
vineyards,  517 
French  Guiana,  446 
Frost  and  dew,  263 
Frost  work,  56 
Fruit-drying,  California,  85 
Fruit  production  in  United  States,  82, 
map,  291 

Fuel,  influence  of  cost  on  manufactur- 
ing, 403 

Fur  trade  and  rivers,  130 

Galveston,  353,  354 
Ganges  River,  178-182 
Ganges  Valley,  125 
Gas,  natural,  48 
Genesee  Falls,  118 
Georgia,  77,  81,  350 
Georgia,  Republic,  531 
Germany,  521-526 
agriculture,  522 
cities,  524 
forests,  522 

geographical  conditions,  522 
manufactures,  523 
map,  521 
minerals,  522 
population,  522,  map,  524 
Rhine,  163-170 
rivers,  505,  522 


568 


INDEX 


ruin  of,  521 
summary,  524 
Geysers,  98,  99,  100 
Glacial  bowlders,  197 
epochs,  208 

evidences  in  United  States,  197 
lakes,  temporary,  207 
period,  evidence  of,  196 
periods,  very  ancient,  208 
plains,  246 

portion  of  Europe,  map,  529 
soil,  66,  207 

stages  of  Great  Lakes,  maps,  208, 
209 

striae,  198 

Glacier  National  Park,  195 
Glaciers,  188-212 

Alaska,  190,  191,  193,  194,  195 

Alps,  188,  192,  196 

Antarctic,  196 

continental,  196-210 

deposits,  202 

erosion  by,  188,  202 

Europe,  map,  202 

Greenland,  194 

lakes,  caused  by,  205 

North  America,  191,  195,  map,  200,  201 

origin  and  movement,  188 

piedmont,  194 

summary,  209 

tidal,  192 

transportation  by,  188 
Glasgow,  333 
Gloucester,  341,  343 
Gold,  43 

Australia,  491 
dredging  in  California,  44 
in  South  Africa,  497 
occurrence  of,  43 
placer  deposits,  44 
veins,  43 

world  distribution,  44 
Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colorado,  119 
Grand  Rapids,  150 
Grapes  (see  fruits,  82-84) 

Grape  production,  Europe,  map,  536 
France,  517 
Gravitation,  law  of,  9 
Gravity  and  gravitation,  8 
Grazing  and  mountains,  237 
Greater  Antilles,  436 
Great  Falls,  Montana,  149 
Great  Lakes,  205 

as  a commercial  waterway,  146,  149 


influence  on  fruit  growing,  83 
ore  transportation  on,  39 
manufacturing  near,  414 
relation  to  iron  industry,  148 
various  stages  of,  208,  209 
Great  Salt  Lake,  48 
salt  in,  49,  122 
Greece,  537 

Greenland,  ice  cap,  194 
Ground  moraine,  203 
Ground  water,  91-107 
and  food  supply,  104 
and  mineral  veins,  100 
Growing  season,  length  of  in  United 
States,  map,  310 
Guatemala,  433 
Guayaquil,  451 
Guianas,  The,  446 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  coast,  351 
Gulf  stream,  292,  306,  319,  320 

Hague,  The,  528 
Hail,  264 
Hail  storms,  70 
Haiti,  437 
Hamburg,  524 
Hammerfest,  296 
Hankow,  552 
Harbors,  332 
improvement  of,  333 
qualities  of  a good,  332 
Havre,  520 

Hawaiian  Islands,  219,  220,  224 
Hay  and  forage,  75 
Heat  equator,  272,  map,  273,  274 
Heat  in  the  atmosphere,  257 
in  the  earth,  7,  8 
Henequen,  Yucatan,  429 
High  and  low  pressure  areas,  277 
High  plains  of  United  States,  climate,  308 
Hills  and  mountains,  227 
Himalaya  Mountains,  243 
Holland,  map,  527 
Honduras,  433 
Hongkong,  489 
Horse  latitudes,  274 
Hot  Springs,  Yellowstone  Park,  96,  97 
Houston,  354 
Humidity,  258 
Humus,  61,  64 
Hungary,  540 

Huntington,  Ellsworth,  description  of 
life  in  deserts,  303 
Hydrosphere,  3,  5 


INDEX 


569 


Icebergs,  192 

Ice  sheet,  European,  199,  202 
North  American,  198,  200,  201 
Idaho,  lead,  50 

lumber  industry,  421 
Igneous  rocks,  25,  26 
Illinois,  41,  73,  74,  94,  406,  407 
relief  map,  247 

Inclination  of  earth’s  axis,  12 
India,  British,  483-489 
agriculture,  484 
castes,  484 
climate,  484 
cotton,  486 
famines,  484 
Ganges,  178-18 
irrigation,  484 
jute,  487 

manufacturing,  487 
mining,  487 
monsoons,  272,  484 
people,  483 

relation  to  Great  Britain,  488 
rice,  486 
sugar  cane,  486 
tea,  487 

wheat  acreage,  map,  1S1 
Indiana,  41,  407 
Indianapolis,  416 

Insularity,  influence  on  Great  Britain, 
469 

Interglacial  periods,  208 
Interior  of  earth,  condition,  213 
Iowa,  71,  74,  85 
Iquique,  452 
Ireland,  468-476 
Iron,  37-42 
in  Europe,  506 
in  Newfoundland,  480 
Iron  mines  in  United  States,  38 
Iron  mining,  open  pit  method,  38,  40 
Irpn  occurrence  in  nature,  37 
Iron  ore  docks,  38,  41 
Iron  ore,  mining  operations,  38 
Iron  production  by  states,  map,  38 
Iron  smelting,  40 
Iron  and  steel  centers,  39 
cities,  413 
industries,  40 

manufacturing  districts,  413 
(See  also  under  various  countries ) 
Irrigation  in  Egypt,  176,  177,  496 
Irrigation  farming,  156 
from  wells,  95 


in  Peru,  449,  map,  450 
in  United  States,  153 
methods  of,  155 
Isobars,  257 
Isotherms,  293 
for  July,  295 
Italy,  328,  329,  534-536 

Jacksonville,  349 
Jamaica,  438 
Japan,  544-550 
agriculture,  545 
climate,  545 
earthquakes,  545 
expansion  of,  544 
fishing  545 
foreign  commerce,  547 
geographical  conditions,  544 
land  of,  548 
, manufactures,  547 
minerals,  546,  548 
population,  546 

relations  with  the  United  States,  548 
rice,  546 
silk,  546 
volcanoes,  545 
Johnstown  flood,  122 
Joplin  district,  zinc,  50 
Jugoslavia,  540 
Jupiter,  16 
Jute,  India,  487 

Kansas,  46,  50,  76,  78 
Kansas  City,  Kansas,  416 
Kansas  City,  Missouri,  416 
Kentucky,  66,  82,  102,  103,  420 
Kentucky  mountains,  life  in,  378 
Kentucky,  soil,  66 
tobacco,  82 

Keokuk  dam,  view,  141,  143 
Key  West,  350 
Kilauea,  220 

Kimberley,  diamond  fields,  497 
Krakatoa,  220 

Labrador  current,  321 
Lake  Erie,  grape  belt,  84 
Lake  plains,  246 
Lake  Superior  iron  mines,  41 
Lakes,  climatic  influence,  290 
due  to  glaciers,  205 
of  glacial  period,  207 
value  of,  206 

Land  and  sea  breezes,  269 


570 


INDEX 


La  Paz,  451 
Lateral  erosion,  111 
Latin  America,  427-465 
Latitude,  13 

Latitude  and  temperature,  287 
Latvia,  531 

Lava  Plateau  of  Columbia  River,  map, 
223 
Lead,  50 

Lesser  Antilles,  439 
Levees,  natural,  137 
Lightning,  281 
Lignite,  32 
Lima,  Peru,  451 
Limestone,  26 
Lisbon  earthquake,  215 
Lithosphere,  3,  6,  S 
materials  of,  22 
Lithuania,  531 
Liverpool,  333,  475 
Llanos,  248,  440 
Loam,  64 
Loess,  66 
Logging,  366 

methods,  368,  369 
London,  475 
Longitude,  13 
Longitude  and  time,  11 
Los  Angeles,  355 
Louisiana,  rice,  81 
salt,  49 
sugar,  81,  420 
Louisville,  416 

Lumbering  in  United  States,  366-369 
Lumber  mills  of  United  States,  map,  367 
Luray  caverns,  103 
Lyon,  520 

Magnetic  poles,  10 
Magnetism  of  the  earth,  10 
Maine,  79,  SO,  338,  339,  340,  370 
Malaspina  glacier,  194,  195 
Malay  peninsula,  489 
rubber,  489 
tin,  488-489 

Mammoth  cave,  map,  103 
Manchester,  475 
Manchuria,  551 
Mantle  rock,  6 

Manufacturing,  and  climate,  404 
and  rivers,  131 
and  transportation,  403 
and  water  power,  403 
Manufacturing  by  states,  map,  422 


Manufacturing  cities,  of  New  England, 

408 

of  United  States,  map,  407 
Manufacturing,  cost  of  fuel,  403 
factors  affecting  growth  of,  403 
four  essentials  of,  400 
importance  of  coal,  400 
importance  of  machinery,  401 
relations  to  markets,  404 
Manufacturing,  in  Chicago,  414 
in  Great  Lakes  Region,  414 
in  metropolitan  district,  New  York, 

409 

in  New  England,  406,  407 
in  north  central  states,  413 
in  northeastern  states,  406 
in  the  South,  417 
in  United  Kingdom,  473 
in  United  States,  400-424 
in  United  States,  government  en- 
couragement, 405 

in  United  States,  leading  section,  413 
in  United  States,  reasons  for  great 
development,  404 
in  United  States,  summary,  423 
in  western  United  States,  422 
Marseille,  520 
Maryland,  94 

Massachusetts,  340,  403,  406 
Materials  of  the  earth’s  crust,  22 
Mature  rivers,  112,  113 
Mauna  Loa,  220 
Meanders,  111 

Meat-packing  and  slaughtering,  414 
Meat-packing  in  central  states,  414 
Mechanical  weathering,  59 
Mediterranean  climate,  534 
Mediterranean  countries,  agricultural 
products,  535 
cities,  538 

general  conditions,  536 
minerals,  534 
topography,  534 
of  Europe,  534-538 
Melbourne,  494 
Meridians,  13 
Merrimac  River,  150 
Mesabi  range,  38,  41 
Mesopotamia,  489 
Messina  earthquake,  215 
Metamorphic  rocks,  25,  27 
Meteorites,  18 

Metropolitan  district  of  New  York,  map, 
408,  409 


INDEX 


571 


Mexico,  428-433 
agriculture,  431 
cities  of,  map,  431 
foreign  trade,  432 
industries,  431 
people,  428 
petroleum,  45,  46,  429 
resources,  429 
silver,  50 
summary,  432 
surface  map,  428 
transportation  in,  432 
Michigan,  38,  41,  42,  43,  67,  82,  83,  151, 
407,  414 

Milwaukee,  415,  416 
Mineral  products  by  states,  39 
Mineral  products  of  Canada,  map,  479, 
480 

Mineral  resources,  Great  Britain,  469, 
472 

South  America,  447 
United  States,  30 
Mineral  substances,  classes  of,  27 
Mineral  veins,  origin,  100 
Mineral  waters,  97 
Minerals,  23,  importance  of,  30 
Mining  and  mountains,  237 
Minneapolis,  206,  417 
Minnesota,  38,  41,  79 
Mississippi  River,  134-146 
Mississippi  and  Amazon  valleys  com- 
pared, 162 

Mississippi,  control  of,  137 
delta  and  jetties  of,  353 
floods,  123 

navigation,  142,  143,  145 
sediment  carried  by,  122 
valley,  climate,  308 
Missouri,  50,  238 
Missouri  River,  140 
Mobile,  351 
Mongolia,  551 

Monsoons,  importance  to  India,  270, 
272 

Montana,  42,  43,  50,  85,  237,  422 

Montenegro,  540 

Montevideo,  463 

Montreal  ice  palace,  299 

Moon,  54 

Moon’s  surface,  9 

Moraines,  190,  198,  203 

Mountain  passes  and  railways,  386 

Mountain  peaks  and  passes,  231 

Mountain  peoples,  240 


Mountain  ranges,  origin,  228 
Mountaineers  of  South,  241 
Mountains  and  climate,  292 
and  grazing,  237 
and  man,  233 
and  mining,  237 
and  plains,  contrasted,  248 
and  population,  239 
and  rainfall,  293 
as  barriers,  238 
as  forest  reserves,  235 
as  skeletons  of  continents,  228 
influence  of,  summary,  250 
old  and  young,  233 
sculpturing  of,  229 
volcanic  activity  in,  228 
Mount  Pelee  eruption,  219 
Movements  of  the  earth’s  crust,  213 

Narragansett  Bay,  342 
National  Road,  338 
Naval  stores,  371,  372,  373 
Nebraska,  66,  76 
Nebulae,  19 
Netherlands,  526 
Nevada,  42,  50 
New  Bedford,  343 
New  England,  150,  151,  207,  233 
coast,  342 

cotton-manufacturing  cities,  408 
fisheries,  343 
manufactures,  406,  407 
manufacturing  cities,  408,  409 
Newfoundland,  iron,  480 
New  Hampshire,  22,  370 
New  Haven,  343 

New  Jersey,  50,  94,  344,  345,  346,  409 

New  London,  343 

New  Mexico,  42 

New  Orleans,  137,  145,  353 

Newport,  342 

Newport  News,  349 

New  York,  49,  70,  83,  87,  151,  290,  370, 
371,  381,  382,  406 
New  York  City,  409 

and  surroundings,  map,  408 
manufacturing,  409 
metropolitan  district,  409 
view  of  lower,  412 

New  York  harbor,  342,  344,  map,  340 
New  Zealand,  494 
sheep,  493 

Niagara  Falls,  117,  118,  121,  127,  134, 
206 


572 


INDEX 


Nicaragua,  433 
Nickel,  Canada,  480 
Nile,  66,  174-178 
as  a waterway,  177 
map,  174,  176 
Nimbus  clouds,  261 
Nitrates,  65 
Nitrogen,  53,  253 
Nitrogen-fixing  bacteria,  65 
Norfolk,  349 

North  America  contrasted  with  South 
America,  440-444 

North  American  ice  sheet,  198,  200,  201 
North  Carolina,  82,  420 
North  central  states,  farming,  74 
manufacturing,  413 
North  Dakota,  78,  94 
North  temperate  zone,  climates  of,  303 
Norway,  326,  327,  329,  528 
Nova  Scotia,  coal,  480 

Oakland,  356 
Oats,  in  United  States,  80 
Ocean  and  its  shores,  314-336 
Ocean  basins,  5,  314 
Ocean  basins  and  continents,  213 
Ocean  bottom,  315 
Ocean  currents,  319 
Ocean  currents  and  climate,  292 
Ocean  currents,  causes,  322 
Ocean  currents  of  world,  map,  320 
Ocean  depths,  5 
Ocean,  extent  of,  314 
Ocean  fisheries,  343 
Ocean,  life  in,  317 
temperatures  of,  317 
Ocean  water,  composition,  316 
Ocean  waters,  5 
movements  of,  319 
Oceanic  climate,  290 
Oceans  as  boundaries,  324 
and  commerce,  324 
and  mankind,  324 
Ohio,  41,  48,  85,  406,  407 
Ohio  River,  140 
Oil  wells,  45 
Oklahoma,  46,  48,  50 
Old  rivers,  112,  114 
Olive  production,  map,  535 
Omaha,  416 

Ontario,  agriculture,  481 
fruit,  290 
minerals,  481 

Oranges,  84 


Orbit  of  the  earth,  289 

Oregon,  79,  83,  222,  306,  364,  368,  422 

Ores,  23 

Orinoco  River,  440 
Outwash  plains,  204 
Oxygen,  53,  253 

Pacific  coast,  354 

of  United  States,  climate,  304,  map, 
305 

salmon  fisheries,  357 
Pacific,  currents  of,  321 
Pampas  of  Argentina,  248,  453 
Panama,  433 
Panama  Canal,  435,  436 
Paper  manufacture  and  water  power,  151 
Para,  463 
Paraguay,  458 
Parallels  of  latitude,  13 
Parana  River,  440 
Passes,  mountain,  231 
Paterson,  150 
Peat,  32 
Peking,  552 
Peneplains,  233 

Pennsylvania,  7,  34,  46,  83,  148,  347, 
370.  406 

Pennsylvania  railroad  system,  map,  396 
Pensacola,  351 
Peru,  cotton,  449 
irrigation,  449,  450 
minerals,  447 
petroleum,  451 
Petrifaction,  101 
Petroleum,  45 
by-products,  47 
in  Mexico,  429 
in  Russia,  531 
in  United  States,  map,  45 
in  western  South  America,  451 
origin  of,  45 
pipe  lines,  map,  47 
refining,  46 
transportation,  46 
uses,  46 

Philadelphia,  347,  410 
Philadelphia-Baltimore,  manufacturing 
district,  410 
Piedmont  glaciers,  194 
Piedmont  Plateau,  243 
Pipe  lines,  map,  47 
Pittsburgh,  413 
Placer  deposits,  44 
Plains,  245 


INDEX 


573 


and  mankind,  248 
and  mountains,  contrasted,  248 
and  plateaus,  summary,  249 
Plains,  alluvial,  245 
coastal,  245 
glacial,  246 
interior,  245 
lake,  246 
outwash,  204 
Planets,  14 
and  stars,  16 
habitability,  17 
orbits,  15 
relative  sizes,  15 
Plant  food,  65 

Plant  and  animals,  work  of,  58 
Plateaus,  242 
life  on,  243 
Platinum,  445 
Poland,  531 
Poles  of  the  earth,  13 
Population  of  South  America,  map,  443 
Population  of  world,  density,  map,  551 
Po  River,  122 
Portland,  Maine,  339 
Portland,  Oregon,  356 
Port  of  entry,  equipment  of,  345 
Porto  Rico,  438 
Portugal,  537 

Potatoes,  in  Europe,  map,  523 
in  Germany,  523 
in  United  States,  79,  map,  80 
Prairies,  246 
Precipitation,  264 
Pressure,  atmospheric,  269 
Prevailing  westerlies,  275 
Prime  meridian,  13 
Providence,  343 
Puget  Sound,  map,  358 
ports,  356 

Pulp  and  paper  manufacturing,  370 
Pyrenees  Mountains,  241 

Quartz,  30,  64 
Quito,  300,  451 

Railroad  map,  Harriman  system,  392 
Hill  system,  393 
of  United  States,  391,  395 
Railroad  systems  of  the  United  States, 
392 

Atchison,  Topeka,  and  Santa  Fe,  394 
Burlington,  393 

Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St.  Paul,  394 


Harriman  lines,  393 
Illinois  Central,  394 
Louisville  and  Nashville,  394 
Morgan  lines,  393 
New  York  Central,  394 
Pennsylvania,  394 
Southern  Pacific,  393 
Southern  Railway,  394 
Union  Pacific,  393 
Vanderbilt  system,  393 
Western  Pacific,  394 
Railroads  of  United  States,  388,  extent, 
390 

Railways,  and  mountain  passes,  386 
and  valleys,  382 
in  Europe,  512 
Rain,  cause  of,  263 
Rain  work,  56 

Rainfall,  and  agriculture,  235 
and  mountains,  293 
Rainfall  of  United  States,  map,  294 
of  world,  307 

Rainy  days  in  United  States,  map,  309 
Rapids  and  falls,  115 
Reclamation  service  of  United  States, 
156 

Red  River,  140 

Red  River  of  the  North,  78,  207,  246 

Reference  books  for  school  library,  559 

Reindeer,  297 

Relative  humidity,  259 

Relief  model  of  the  earth,  7 

Relief  of  the  earth’s  surface,  8 

Residual  soil,  60,  66 

Resources  of  United  States,  relation 
to  manufactures,  405 
Revolution  of  the  earth,  13 
Rhine  River,  163-170 
in  the  Middle  Ages,  166 
in  the  twentieth  century,  167 
Rhode  Island,  408 
Rice,  in  China,  555 
in  India,  486 

in  Japan,  546,  548,  map,  546 
in  United  States,  80,  81,  map,  81 
Rice  lands,  68 
Richmond,  349 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  460,  466 
Rio  de  La  Plata,  440 
Rising  coasts,  327 

Rivers,  and  colonial  agriculture,  130 
and  early  manufacturing,  131 
and  fur  trade,  130 
as  sources  of  power,  149 


574 


INDEX 


at  work,  108-128 
deposits  by,  123 
drowned  mouths  of,  126 
historic  and  economic  aspects,  129, 
158 

in  American  history,  129 
in  a new  country,  380 
of  Europe,  505 
of  Germany,  505 
of  South  America,  440 
of  western  United  States,  151 
River  terraces,  125 
River  work,  summary , 126 
Roads,  early,  in  United  States,  388 
Rochester,  New  York,  77,  206 
Rock  decay,  59,  60 
Rock  weathering  and  soil,  53 
Rocks,  classes  of,  25 
stratified,  26 
Rocky  Mountains,  242 
Rotation  of  the  earth,  13 
Rotterdam,  528 

Royal  Gorge  of  Arkansas  River,  139, 
140,  287 

Rubber,  Brazil,  458,  462 
Malay  Peninsula,  489 
Rumania,  540 
oil  field,  508 
Russia,  530 

and  Volga,  170-173 
forests,  531 
minerals,  531 
Rye,  68,  82 

Salmon  fisheries,  British  Columbia,  479 
Pacific  coast  of  United  States,  357 
Salmon,  peculiarities  of,  357 
Salt  beds,  origin,  48 
Salt  in  the  ocean,  317 
Salt,  methods  of  obtaining,  49 
occurrence,  48 
Salvador,  433 
Sand,  64 
Sand  bars,  123 
San  Diego,  355 
Sandstone,  26,  28 
San  Francisco,  215,  354,  356 
city  and  harbor,  355,  356 
Santiago,  Chile,  452 
Santos,  Brazil,  460,  463 
Sao  Paulo,  463 
Saturation,  259 
Sault  Ste.  Marie,  map,  133 
Savannah,  349,  373 


Savannas,  301 
Scandinavian  countries,  528 
Scotland,  cities,  475 
coal,  472 

Sea  island  cotton,  77,  350 
Seal  fisheries  of  Alaska,  358 
Seasons,  change  of,  12 
Seattle,  356 
Sedimentary  rocks,  25 
Sediment  carried  by  rivers,  122 
Semple,  Ellen,  description  of  life  in 
Kentucky  Mountains,  378 
Serbia,  540 
Shale,  26 
Shanghai,  552 
Shasta,  Mount,  221 
Sheep,  Argentina,  453,  457 
Australia,  491 
Europe,  map,  473 
New  Zealand,  493 
South  America,  map,  457 
United  States,  84,  85,  86,  87 
Ship  building,  Delaware  River,  349,  410 
Silk,  China,  555 
Italy,  535 
Japan,  546 
Silver,  50 
Singapore,  489 
Sink  holes,  102 
Sinking  coasts,  325 
Slaughtering  and  meat-packing,  414 
Snake  River  Canon,  222 
Snow,  264 

Snow  fields  of  glaciers,  188 
Snow  flakes,  263 
Soil,  and  agriculture,  63 
and  crops,  67 
and  forests,  68 
and  weathering,  61-63 
Soil  bacteria,  65 
Soil,  components  of,  64 
Soil  creep,  67 

Soil  erosion  and  deforestation,  374 
Soil,  glacial,  207 
importance  of,  63 
residual,  66 
transported,  66 
Soil  wash,  67 
Solar  system,  14 

Solution,  material  carried  in,  122 
South  Africa,  495 
diamonds,  497 
general  description,  497 
gold,  44,  497 


INDEX 


575 


South,  manufacturing  in,  417-422 
water  power  in,  150 
South  America,  439-465 
cities  of  eastern,  463 
climate,  441 
coast  line,  439 

coffee,  444,  458,  459,  map , 461 
contrasted  with  North  America,  440- 
444 

development  of,  443 
foreign  trade,  462 
governments,  442 
manufactures,  461 
mountains,  439,  440 
people,  442 

physical  features,  439,  440 

population,  map,  443 

productions,  442 

relation  to  United  States,  463 

river  systems,  440 

sheep,  map,  457 

situation,  441 

size,  440 

southern,  cattle  production,  map,  456 
timber  resources,  map,  441 
South  America,  west  coast,  446 
agriculture,  449 
cities,  451,  452 

commerce  with  United  States,  452 
foreign  trade,  451 
mineral  resources,  447 
transportation,  450 

South  America,  wheat-growing,  map,  455 
South  Carolina,  77,  81,  350,  420 
South  Dakota,  94,  227 
Southern  hemisphere,  currents  of,  321 
Southern  states,  farming,  74 
manufacturing  in,  417-422 
Spain,  536 
Sponge-fishing,  .350 
Spring  wheat,  78 
Stalactites,  103 
Stalagmites,  104 
Standard  time,  11 
St.  Anthony  Falls,  119 
Stars  and  planets,  16 
Steel  and  iron  manufacturing  district 
of  United  States,  413 
Steel-making,  40 
Steppes,  248 

St.  Lawrence  River  system,  historical, 
132-134 

St.  Louis,  144,  145,  305,  414,  415 
St.  Mary’s  falls,  map,  133,  146 


Stock  raising  in  United  States,  84 
Stock  yards,  Chicago,  418 
Storms,  and  weather  changes,  276 
and  weather,  summary,  283 
and  winds,  268,  285 

Storm  tracks  across  United  States, 
278,  map,  280 
St.  Paul,  416 
Stratified  rocks,  24 
weathering  of,  60 
Stratus  clouds,  260,  261 
Striae,  glacial,  198 
Suez  Canal,  496 
Sugar  beets.  United  States,  82 
Sugar  cane,  United  States,  81 
Cuba,  map , 437 
India,  486 

Sugar  mills  in  Cuba,  map,  437 
Sun,  14-17 

Surface  features  of  earth,  8 
Surface  features  of  the  land,  227-252 
Suspension,  material  carried  in,  121 
Swamps,  causes,  206 
Swamp  lands,  71 
Sweden,  529 

Swine  in  United  States,  85,  86 
Switzerland,  532-534 
industries,  533 
people  and  government,  534 
resources,  533 
transportation,  533 
Sydney,  494 

Tacoma,  356 
Talus,  57 
Tampa,  351 

Tampico,  petroleum,  429 
Tanning,  370 

Tarr,  R.  S.,  description  of  New  England 
fisherman,  344 

description  of  life  of  Eskimos,  297 
Tea,  China,  555 
India,  487 

Temperature  and  altitude,  233 
and  latitude,  287 
Temperatures,  earth’s  interior,  7 
effects  of  changes,  57 
Tennessee,  42,  150,  420 
Terminal  moraines,  190,  203 
Terraces,  river,  125 
Texas,  81,  353,  354,  420 
Thermometer,  6 
Thunder  storms,  281 
Tibet.  243 


INDEX 


576 


Tidal  glaciers  and  icebergs,  192 
Tides,  322 

Time  and  longitude,  11 
Time  belts  of  United  States,  11 
Tin  in  Bolivia,  447 
Malay  Peninsula,  488 
Tobacco,  82 
in  Cuba,  437,  438 
Tobacco  soils,  68 
Tornadoes,  281 

Trade  wind  belts,  climate  of,  300 
Trade  winds,  273,  274 
Transandine  Railroad,  451 
Transportation,  in  the  Andes,  450 
by  different  methods,  cost  of,  394 
by  lake  and  river  in  United  States,  382 
dependence  of  modern  life  upon,  378 
facilities,  growth  in  United  States,  387 
geographical  aspects,  378-399 
in  Brazil,  460 
in  Mexico,  432 

in  United  States,  early  difficulties,  129 
relation  to  manufacturing,  405 
summary,  398 

Transporting  power  of  a river,  121 
Trenton,  New  Jersey,  410 
Trinidad,  439 

Tropics  of  Cancer  and  Capricorn,  12 
Tropics,  life  in,  298 
Tundras,  248 

Ukrainia,  531 
Ulster,  472 

Underground  water,  91-107 
summary,  105—106 
United  Kingdom,  468-476 
cities,  475 
climate,  469 
coal,  map,  471 
commerce,  474 
country  and  people,  468 
government,  469 
industries,  473 
rainfall,  map,  468 
rivers,  505 
summary,  475 

United  States,  agriculture  in,  70-90 
agricultural  provinces,  map,  72 
canals  of,  map,  381 
cities,  map,  404,  407 
coal  areas,  map,  33 
coast  and  coastal  activities,  337-361 
corn,  map,  75 
cotton,  map,  76 


dairy  products,  map,  88 
farm  properties,  70 
farming  methods,  73 
farming  regions,  74 
forests  of,  362-377,  map,  363 
glaciers  in,  188-211 
gold  production,  44 
growing  season,  map,  310 
lead  production,  50 
lumbering  industry,  map,  367 
manufacturing  and  manufacturing 
centers,  400-423 

mineral  resources  and  industries,  30-52 
oil  production,  46 
petroleum  fields,  map,  45 
principal  crops,  75 
railroads,  map,  391,  395 
rainfall,  map,  294 
rainy  days  in,  map,  309 
relations  to  South  America,  463 
rice  production,  map,  81 
rivers  of,  129-158 
sheep,  map,  86 
silver  production,  50 
storm  tracks,  map,  280 
swine,  map,  86 
transportation,  378—399 
wheat,  map,  78 
Uruguay,  457 
Utah,  48,  50 

Valley  glaciers,  188 
decline  of,  196 
Valleys,  cause  of,  111 
Valleys  and  railways,  382 
Valparaiso,  Chile,  452 
Venezuela,  445 
Vermont,  371 
Victoria  Falls,  119 
Virgin  Islands,  438 
Virginia,  82,  97,  103,  420 
Volcanic  activity  in  mountains,  228 
Volcanoes,  causes,  223 
distribution,  map,  224 
famous,  219 
of  Hawaii,  220 
summary,  225 
types  of,  219 
Volga  River,  170,  173 

Wales,  coal,  472 
Washington,  D.  C.,  349 
Washington,  83,  235,  306,  364,  368 
422 


INDEX 


577 


Waste,  agents  of,  55 
Waterfalls  due  to  glaciers,  206 
Water  in  the  atmosphere,  6,  258 
Water  power,  and  manufacturing.  149— 
151 

and  paper  manufacture,  151 
Canada,  481 

Water  power  centers,  150 
Water  power,  in  California,  map,  152 
in  New  England,  150 
in  the  South,  150 
of  United  States,  map,  148 
Water  table,  91 

relation  to  wells  and  swamps,  92 
Water  vapor,  6,  254 
Waterways,  Great  Lakes,  146 
Waterways  problem,  145 
Waves,  wind,  319 
Weather  and  agriculture,  70 
and  climate,  286 
causes  of  frequent  changes,  276 
maps,  276,  277,  279 
Weathering  and  erosion,  109 
and  soil,  53-68 
injurious  effects  of,  61 
summary,  62 
Wedge  work,  57 
Welland  Canal,  133 
Wells,  94 

economic  value,  95 
irrigation  by,  95 

West  coast  of  South  America,  446-452 
West  facing  coasts,  climate  of,  303 
West  Indies,  436-439 
Westerlies,  275 


Wrest  Virginia,  48,  243 
Wheat,  77 

average  yield,  78 
exports,  79 

(See  a Iso  under  various  countries ) 
Wheat-growing,  Argentina,  454,  map,  455 
WheaDproduction,  Canada,  map,  481 
United  States,  map,  78 
Wheat,  yield,  73 
Wilmington,  Del.,  348,  411 
Wilmington,  N.  C.,  349 
Wind  belts  of  earth,  map,  271 
Wind  belts,  summary,  275 
Wind-blown  sand,  55 
Wind-blown  soil,  66 
Winds,  how  named,  269 
Winds  in  United  States,  map,  282 
Winds  and  climate,  292 
and  storms,  268,  285 
Wind  waves,  319 
Wind  work,  55 
Winter  wheat,  78 

Wisconsin,  50,  67,  87,  94,  151.  199,  238, 
370,  414,  417 

World  War,  boundary  changes,  Europe, 
541 

Wyoming,  85,  237 

Yangtze  River,  182-186 
Yellowstone  Park,  96-99 
Young  rivers,  112,  113 
Yucatan,  henequen,  429 

Zinc,  50 

Zones  of  the  earth,  12,  13 


Date  Due 


JUN  2 5 43 

Form  335— 40M— 6-39— S 

